Terminal Pleistocene to mid-Holocene occupation and an early cremation burial at Ille Cave, Palawan, Philippines.

Terminal Pleistocene to mid-Holocene occupation and an early cremation burial at Ille Cave, Palawan, Philippines. Introduction New excavations at Ille Cave, Palawan, Philippines have producedthe first well-stratified and dated terminal Pleistocene to mid-Holocenearchaeological sequence The archaeological sequence or sequence for short, on a specific archaeological site can be defined on two levels of rigour. Normally it is adequate to equate it to archaeological record. However, the two terms are not exactly interchangeable. from the Philippine archipelago. This sequenceincludes evidence of changing subsistence and settlement patterns, aswell as an early cremation cremation,disposal of a corpse by fire. It is an ancient and widespread practice, second only to burial. It has been found among the chiefdoms of the Pacific Northwest, among Northern Athapascan bands in Alaska, and among Canadian cultural groups. burial. The island of Palawan, situatedbetween Borneo to the south and the Philippine archipelago to the northand east (Figure 1), is important for its biogeographic bi��o��ge��og��ra��phy?n.The study of the geographic distribution of organisms.bio��ge��og links with theSundaic region of Southeast Asia (e.g. Heaney 1985; Heaney et al. 2005;Merill 1923; Reis & Garong 2001), and for interpreted patterns ofancient human migration between, and cultural connections with, mainlandSoutheast Asia, the test of the Philippines, Taiwan, Borneo andIndonesia (Bellwood 1997; 2005; O'Connor 2007; Solheim 2006). Manycave sites are known from the island, including Tabon Cave, which hasthe earliest recovered human remains in the Philippines (c. 45kya)(Detroit et al. 2002; Dizon 2003; Fox 1970), and some of the earliest inIsland Southeast Asia (e.g. O'Connor 2007). There are also severalimportant Neolithic and Metal Age cave cemeteries in Palawan (Fox 1970). [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] Ille is a solution cave and rockshelter at the base of a c.75m-high karst Karst(kärst), Ital. Carso, Slovenian Kras, limestone plateau, W Slovenia, N of Istria and extending c.50 mi (80 km) SE from the lower Isonzo (Soča) valley between the Bay of Trieste and the Julian Alps. tower near the village of New Ibajay, El Nido, northPalawan (119[degrees] 30'19"E, 11[degrees]1l'46"N).The site comprises east and west rockshelter mouths, opening onto arelatively flat platform of silt loam (Figures 2 and 3), in a setting oflight woodland. From the Ille summit other local towers are visible, and4km to the east lies the sea at Sibaltan Bay (Figure 4). The landscapeis dominated by the floodplain floodplain,level land along the course of a river formed by the deposition of sediment during periodic floods. Floodplains contain such features as levees, backswamps, delta plains, and oxbow lakes. of the Dewil river and its tributaries,covered by rice paddies, tree and vegetable crops and secondary rainforest. In 1998 the National Museum of the Philippines began a long-termsurvey and excavation programme in the region, including Ille, othernearby caves and their surroundings (Cayron 2004; de la Torre 1999; Hara& Cayron 2001; Jago-on 2000; Kress 2004; Pawlik 2004; Paz 1998;SEAICE 1999; 2000; Solheim 2000; Szabo et al. 2004; Teodosio 2004).Initial investigations in the east mouth of Ille Cave revealed two lateprehistoric burials underlain un��der��lain?v.Past participle of underlie. by shell midden middendungheap. layers dated to c.5000-7000 cal BE The deepest deposits, overlying overlyingsuffocation of piglets by the sow. The piglets may be weak from illness or malnutrition, the sow may be clumsy or ill, the pen may be inadequate in size or poorly designed so that piglets cannot escape. an apparent rock floorc. 1.5m below the modern ground surface, were dated to c. 10 500 BP oncharcoal (Szabo 2004; Szabo et al. 2004). New investigations began in2004 upon hearing that the site had been looted and that the supposedrock floor of the east mouth trench had been broken through by treasurehunters, exposing a further 40+cm of early Holocene and possibly LatePleistocene cultural deposits (Paz & Ronquillo 2004). [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] The Ille Cave Project was established to investigate the spatialextent, nature and antiquity of the archaeological sequences at the site(ASP 2005-6; Eusebio et al. 2006; Lewis et al. 2006; Ochoa 2005; Vitales2006). The previously excavated east mouth 1 x 2m trench was extended by4 x 4m (Figure 2), trowel-excavated by context and sieved (100 per centof contexts). The extensive cemetery, shell midden and underlyingdeposits were investigated to a depth of 2m, and the underlyingsedimentary sequences exposed by the looters at the north end of thesite to a depth of 3.6m. The main stratigraphic stra��tig��ra��phy?n.The study of rock strata, especially the distribution, deposition, and age of sedimentary rocks.strat sequence is summarisedin Table 1. The upper parts of the east mouth sequence, including thelarge Neolithic-to eighteenth-century AD cemetery and mid-Holocene shellmidden are not reported here. Terminal Pleistocene to mid-Holocene sequence at Ille Cave The focus of this paper is the early occupation levels identifiedbeneath the c. 5000-7000 cal BP shell midden (Table 1). These comprise asloping 60 to 100cm-thick unit of burnt deposits in clayey silt, withintact and disturbed hearth features, flaked lithics, numerous faunalremains and one cremated human burial (Contexts 334-807; Figure 5). Thedeepest deposits comprise steeply sloping alternating layers of veryfine red and green, peagrit-sized rounded limestone gravels inyellow-orange clay (20-30cm thick; Contexts 806, 1306, 1308) and stiffyellow clay layers (30+cm thick) (Contexts 866, 1307, 1309). Similardeposits were seen in a test pit south of the karst tower, suggestingthey are not simply cave sediments, although their history has yet to bedetermined. The uppermost of these deposits (Context 806) was devoid ofcultural material. Below this, a few stone artefacts, fragments ofcharred nut and worked chert chert:see flint. were recovered in association with asubstantial anthropic-derived assemblage of burnt and unburnt animalbones (Context 866; Tables 3 and 4). Twenty charcoal and bone samplesfrom secure contexts produced a sequential range of dates from c.9000-11 000 cal BE linking the well-stratified archaeological sequenceto a high resolution chronology (Table 2). A further sample of charcoalfrom Context 866 returned a date of c. 14 000 cal BP. The low combustionyield and a depleted [delta][sup.13]C value (Tom Higham, pers. comm.)add some uncertainty to the accuracy of this date, but if confirmed itplaces this deposit well into the Pleistocene. [FIGURE 3 OMITTED] Deposits dated to c. 9400-11 000 cal BP Contexts 334 to 807 comprise silty clay layers rich in fragments ofdecaying limestone and speleothems, with occasional oxidised and reducedclay lumps. Limestone pebbles (some apparently burnt), charcoal, burntand unburnt animal bones, shells and chert and obsidian flakesoccasionally occurred in discrete clusters in apparent activity areas.Several intact individual hearths were found within these units (Table1), along with hearth rake-out material. Radiocarbon dates from thesecontexts span c. 9400-11 000 cal BP (Table 2). [FIGURE 4 OMITTED] Human foragers appear to have hunted a diverse range of local faunafrom different ecological zones in the forest, including pig, deer,macaque macaque(məkäk`), name for Old World monkeys of the genus Macaca, related to mangabeys, mandrills, and baboons. All but one of the 19 species are found in Asia from Afghanistan to Japan, the Philippines, and Borneo. and various small carnivores (Tables 3 and 4). The remains ofturtles and snakes are also common in the archaeological record (Table4), and even though monitor lizards are notorious scavengers and mayhave been attracted to refuse, the consistent abundant presence of theirpartial skeletons suggests that they too represent part of human prey. Intriguingly, in the cultural sequence succeeding Context 866 deerbones diminish in number, and by the mid-Holocene the deer is replacedby pig as the dominant hunted taxon taxon(pl. taxa), in biology, a term used to denote any group or rank in the classification of organisms, e.g., class, order, family. in the assemblage. Even with theextensive sampling and sieving strategies employed at Ille Cave, fishand bird bones are rare in these deposits. The few identifiable fishbones appear to be those of freshwater Cyprinidae. Other small mammalssuch as bats and murids probably represent inclusions in accumulatingsediments, although human consumption of these can never be whollydiscounted. The deposits contained 56 flaked stone artefacts of chert andobsidian, often occurring as isolated scatters. The raw materials haveyet to be sourced, but preliminary observations suggest that while chertmay be local (Barton 2006, after Hashimoto & Sato 1973) the obsidianis likely to be imported, but is not from a known source in thePhilippines (Neri 2006). This is the oldest obsidian recovered from awell-dated and stratified stratified/strat��i��fied/ (strat��i-fid) formed or arranged in layers. strat��i��fiedadj.Arranged in the form of layers or strata. archaeological context in the Philippines.Undated un��dat��ed?adj.1. Not marked with or showing a date: an undated letter; an undated portrait.2. 'Mesolithic' flaked obsidian has been found in Luzonin the north of the country (Scott 1968). The lithic lith��ic?1?adj.Consisting of or relating to stone or rock.Adj. 1. lithic - of or containing lithium2. lithic - relating to or composed of stone; "lithic sandstone" assemblage contains a high proportion of cores (n = 7,12.5 per cent), all reduced using bipolar techniques with effort tocontrol core face geometry. Several cores have parallel longitudinalflake scars indicating the production of flakes with blade dimensions(Barton 2006). The ratio of complete flakes (n = 16) and bipolar flakes(n = 9) to cores (n = 7) is 3.6:1. The lack of early stage corereduction debitage The term debitage refers to the totality of waste material produced during lithic reduction and the production of chipped stone tools. This assemblage includes, but is not limited to, different kinds of lithic flakes, shatter, and production errors and rejects. and of other debitage from bipolar flaking, and theabsence of hammerstones and anvils, indicate that cores were reducedelsewhere and brought to the site with other flakes. The flakeassemblage comprises mainly unretouched tools, with only two retouchedflakes identified. [FIGURE 5 OMITTED] Use-wear analysis reveals that a high proportion of exhausted coreswere subsequently used as tools. These were selected for the use oftheir flake margins--a unique feature of this assemblage. Sixteen of thechert tools show use-wear in the form of edge damage or micro-tracessuch as micro-scarring, use polish, rounding and striations (Table 5)(Barton 2006). A subset of six pieces demonstrates use-wear consistentwith specialised functions, possibly the planing of siliceous siliceousrelating to or made of silica or a silicate. plants,reeds or wood. The use polish on these pieces is very distinctive, withthe heaviest polish on the apex of the worked edge; this is very bright,continuous and sometimes extensively pitted. Away from the edge, polishis often reticulate re��tic��u��late?adj.Resembling or forming a net or network: reticulate veins of a leaf.v. re��tic��u��lat��ed, re��tic��u��lat��ing, re��tic��u��latesv.tr.1. and joined up, like wood-type polish, and similar topolishes described by Vaughan (1985) in experiments on tools used toplane reeds (Phragmites sp.). Most of these tools are bipolar cores withhigh to obtuse edge angles. These edges would be stable, robust andlong-lasting. In general the used artefacts suggest that Ille was alocation for the production and/or maintenance of an organic technology,rather than a site of flaked tool production and maintenance. Initial archaeobotanical results show the presence of untransformedseeds, charred parenchymatous pa��ren��chy��ma?n.1. Anatomy The tissue characteristic of an organ, as distinguished from associated connective or supporting tissues.2. tissues, and charred wild nut fragments.The latter are of at least three types, one of which has been identifiedas probable Canarium sp., rainforest trees that are sources of ediblenuts, oil and resin. This suggests the existence and exploitation ofsome moist forest resources in the early to mid-Holocene. An early cremation burial In square W4N3 at 1.3-1.48m depth, a tight stack of fragmentedburnt human bones was found standing on a slab of degraded fallenlimestone/speleothem (Figure 6). The compact stacked organisation of thebones suggests that the cremation was originally placed within anorganic container that subsequently decayed; no feature cut wasobserved. The bones were burnt, but most were not fully whitened, onlycharred. No charcoal was found in direct association with the bones,which appear to have been cleaned before interment. A fragment ofcalcined bone from the cremation was dated at ORAU ORAU Oak Ridge Associated Universities using the methodoutlined by Lanting et al. (2001) and yielded two dates ranging betweenc. 9000-9500 cal BE To our knowledge, these are the earliest directdates of cremated human bones ever reported from the region. The stack of bones includes at least 610 fragments from <1-8cmin size, representing c. 45 skeletal elements, with no replication,suggesting that they are from one individual (Lata 2006).Well-represented elements are the cranium cranium:see skull. , femora fem��o��ra?n.A plural of femur. , humeri, radii ra��di��i?n.A plural of radius.radiiNouna plural of radius , ulnaeand fibulae; those with minimal representation are those with largecancellous cancellous/can��cel��lous/ (kan-sel��us) of a reticular, spongy, or lattice-like structure. can��cel��lousadj.Cancellated. portions (ribs, pelvis and vertebrae VertebraeBones in the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar regions of the body that make up the vertebral column. Vertebrae have a central foramen (hole), and their superposition makes up the vertebral canal that encloses the spinal cord. ). The human remainsunderwent a series of modifications before burial, includingdisarticulation disarticulation/dis��ar��tic��u��la��tion/ (dis?ahr-tik?u-la��shun) exarticulation; amputation or separation at a joint. dis��ar��tic��u��la��tionn. , fragmentation, burning and re-fragmentation. There arealso indications that the cranium was skinned and the tibia tibia:see leg. defleshed.Cutmarks are found at various locations, mostly situated at of close toarticular articular/ar��tic��u��lar/ (ahr-tik��u-ler) pertaining to a joint. ar��tic��u��laradj.Of or relating to a joint or joints.articularpertaining to a joint. joints. The remains probably represent a female (after Acsadi &Nemeskeri 1970; Bruzek 2002), with an age-at-death from late twentiesinto middle adulthood (after modern standards; Suchey in Bass 1995). Ashort stature (<165.2cm) is suggested based on a reconstructed leftfibula fibula(fĭb`yələ): see leg. (after Trotter & Gleser 1958; Pelin & Duyar 2003).Pitting, characterised by small non-coalescing pores, was noted on someof the cranial bone cranial bonen.Any of the bones surrounding the brain, comprising the paired parietal and temporal bones and the unpaired occipital, frontal sphenoid, and ethmoid bones. external surfaces, and abnormal bony deposition(mixed lamellae lamellae(lmel´ē),n the nearly parallel layers of bone tissue found in compact bone. of woven bone wo��ven bonen.Bony tissue characteristic of the embryonic skeleton in which the collagen fibers of the matrix are arranged irregularly in the form of interlacing networks. Also called nonlamellar bone, reticulated bone. and sclerosis) was also observed on theanterior surface of the right femur femur(fē`mər): see leg. suggesting active disease with somehealing at time of death. Discussion The extent, age range and apparent intensity of the activityobserved at the east mouth of Ille Cave suggest long use as a place offrequent habitation HABITATION, civil law. It was the right of a person to live in the house of another without prejudice to the property. 2. It differed from a usufruct in this, that the usufructuary might have applied the house to any purpose, as, a store or manufactory; whereas during the early to mid-Holocene. Interpretedactivities include hunting, food preparation, discard of food refuse,and activities such as planing siliceous plant materials and wood. Thelithics suggest that Ille was not a primary stone tool production site;other types of occupation and/or tool production sites must therefore belocated elsewhere in the landscape, and remain to be documented. The record of diminishing deer remains at the cave reflectsshifting subsistence trends evident elsewhere on the island. Fox (1970)reported the presence of an extinct deer taxon in the archaeologicalrecord from Tabon Cave. He contrasted this with the complete absence ofdeer remains in any Neolithic or Metal Age archaeological assemblagesfrom the area, and suggested that deer became extinct on Palawan c. 4000years ago, but we cannot securely date this event. Other shifts inhunting strategy have also been noted from elsewhere in the region ataround this time (e.g. Bulbeck 2003). From the zooarchaeological recordat Ille Cave we know that deer were under constant, if not intensive,hunting pressure from at least the terminal Pleistocene, and they seemto disappear from the Palawan record in the later Holocene, at whichtime local foragers switched their primary hunting strategy toconcentrate more heavily on pigs. The long-term decrease in deercoincides with major changes in environment as the proposed drier andmore open vegetation of the Last Glacial Maximum The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) refers to the time of maximum extent of the ice sheets during the last glaciation (the W��rm or Wisconsin glaciation), approximately 20,000 years ago. This extreme persisted for several thousand years. was gradually replacedwith moist forest into the Holocene (Bird et al. 2005; 2007). The pollenrecord from an adjacent swamp with a basal date of c. 18 000 cal BP isbeing developed (J. Stevenson pers. comm.) as part of the Ille projectto shed more light on vegetation change over the late Pleistocene tomid-Holocene for the region. [FIGURE 6 OMITTED] An apparent hiatus in cultural deposition in Context 866, currentlylying between deposits dating from c. 14 000 to c.11 500 cal BP reflectsbroader regional trends. For instance, Semah et al. (2004; Semah &Semah 2006) note at Song Terus, Java, temporary human abandonment at thePleistocene-Holocene boundary, with resumption of intensive humanactivity c. 10000 cal BP. There is obviously an interesting story to betold regionally regarding the Pleistocene-Holocene transition; ongoingdating and research into palaeolandform, palaeoecological and culturalchange in the Ille area will further clarify landscape history and helpdevelop the regional Late Pleistocene and Holocene picture. The identification and direct dating of a human cremation burialshows that the Late Palaeolithic occupants of Ille Cave buried some oftheir dead where they lived and that they practised complex burialrites, including cremation and disarticulation with interment incontainers in cave and rockshelter entrances. There are some partialparallels with other sites in the region, including Tabon Cave where(unburnt) poorly stratified human remains were found associated withLate Palaeolithic assemblages (Fox 1970) and Niah Cave in Borneo, where(unburnt) Late Palaeolithic inhumation burials have been identified(Harrisson 1967). However, the interment of a cremated body in a container presageslater prehistoric practice in the region, and is significant in light ofthe possible longevity of this tradition. At Niah and other cave sites,and indeed in Palawan, cremation burials in containers (mainly urns),piles (possibly originally in baskets, wooden containers or cloth), orsmall pits have been described. These have not been directly dated, butform part of Neolithic and Metal Age cemetery contexts (Bayard 1996-7;Fox 1970; Harrisson 1967). Early, dated, cremations from the largerregion appear to be relatively rare. The oldest proposed cremationburial is from Lake Mungo 1, Australia, with bone fragments dated to c.19 000 and 24 000 BP (Bowler et al. 1972; Gillespie 1997; 1998). Conclusion Studies of early human colonisation and prehistoric adaptation tothe changing environments of the late Pleistocene and early tomid-Holocene in Southeast Asia have produced evidence for complexadaptations amongst Late Palaeolithic people, as well as for substantiallocalised variations in environment over the period (Anderson 1997;Barker et al. 2002; 2007; Reynolds 1993; Szabo et al. 2007). The abilityof human populations to inhabit Ille Cave throughout this time, despitechanging environments, reinforces the evidence from Niah Caves (Barkeret al. 2007), where it has been argued that foragers subsisted in acomplex mosaic of changing environments that included open woodland,savannah and dense tropical forest. The behavioural flexibilitydemonstrated by early populations in the region suggests that few, ifany, environmental regimes restricted human dispersal (contra e.g.O'Connor 2007) or subsequent success. An early cremation burial associated with these occupation depositsshows the practice of interment in a container at c. 9000-9500 cal BEmuch earlier than previously evident for such traditions in the region.In the context of this currently unique find, future efforts to directlydate Holocene human burial contexts across the region are greatlyneeded. The significance for Southeast Asian archaeology of developingwell-dated, stratified sequences with secure contextual data cannot beunderstated. The development of regional and local landscape andenvironmental histories has been hampered through limited application ofhigh-resolution methodologies for absolute dating (see Barker et al.2007; O'Connor 2007; Roberts et al. 2005; Szabo et al. 2007), andlimited use of context-oriented excavation strategies, both resulting innumerous uncertainties regarding artefact See artifact. and site typologies (e.g.Lampert et al. 2003; 2004; White 2004). The archaeological sequencereported here, which also extends into the later Holocene (Szabo et al.2004), is a rare and important resource for study of the ancientPhilippines and Southeast Asia. Ille is, however, just one of thousandsof cave sites known in the region; it is clear that we must continue toinvestigate these sites with a multidisciplinary approach stronglydedicated to understanding and dating extant stratified archaeologicalsequences. Acknowledgements Thanks to the many local people, colleagues and students who workedwith us in the field and laboratory, and to G. Paulino, M. & A.Laririt, E. Lin, S. Dandan, M. Monzales, the staff at Lally & AbetCottages, M.C. Swete Kelly, K. Szabo, staff of the Oxford RadiocarbonAccelerator Unit, G. Barker, P. Bellwood, C Gosden, C. French, A.Pawlik, M. Eusebio, A. Tiama, D. Jacar, A. Pagulayan, E. Dizon, W.Longacre, E. Bacus, V. Pigott, T. Reynolds, M. Spriggs, M. Carver, ananonymous referee, V. Stoukalov and especially the Solheim household andthe Paz family. Funding: British Academy, the NERC/AHRC Orads programme, Rio Tuba& Coral Bay Nickel Mines, J. Kress, UP Diliman ArchaeologicalStudies Program, the Solheim Foundation for Philippine Archaeology,SEAir airlines. Facilities and support: UP Diliman ASP, National Museumof the Philippines, University of Oxford Institute of Archaeology The Institute of Archaeology is an academic department of University College London (UCL), in the United Kingdom. The Institute is located in a separate building at the north end of Gordon Square, Bloomsbury. andResearch Laboratory for Archaeology & the History of Art, UniversityCollege Dublin School of Archaeology, University of Leicester HistoryThe University was founded as Leicestershire and Rutland College in 1918. The site for the University was donated by a local textile manufacturer, Thomas Fielding Johnson, in order to create a living memorial for those who lost their lives in World War I. School ofArchaeology & Ancient History. Project & excavation directors HL,VP, WR & WS; co-authorsexcavating east mouth 2005-6 HL, VP, ML, AJC AJC Atlanta Journal & ConstitutionAJC American Jewish CommitteeAJC Arabian Jockey ClubAJC American Jewish CongressAJC Australian Jockey Club (Sydney, Australia)AJC Anderson Junior College (Singapore), TV, VH, HB, PP, JO, ECR ECR Efficient Consumer ResponseECR European Congress of RadiologyECR Electron Cyclotron ResonanceECR El Camino Real (Kings Highway; California)ECR Electronic Cash RegisterECR East Coast Radio (South Africa),RP, WS & JS; east mouth supervisor AJC; test pit ECR & AR;geoarchaeology HL; archaeobotany VP & AJC; human remains ML; lithicsand residue analyses HB; obsidian LN; faunal remains PP and JO;radiocarbon dates HL, TH & ECR; palaeoecology paleoecology, palaeoecologythe branch of ecology that studies the relationship of ancient plants and animals to their environments. — paleoecologic, palaeoecologic, paleoecological, palaeoecological, adj. JS; permits &archive WR. 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Comment on dates from a resin-coated sherd fromSpirit Cave, Thailand. Antiquity 78: 184-6. Helen Lewis (1), Victor Paz (2), Myra Lara (2), Huw Barton (3),Philip Piper (2), Janine Ochoa (2), Timothy Vitales (2), A. Jane Carlos(2), Tom Higham (4), Leee Neri (2), Vito Hernandez (2), JanelleStevenson (5), Emil Charles Robles (2), Andrea Ragragio (2), RojoPadilla (2), Wilhelm Solheim II (2) & Wilfredo Ronquillo (6) (1) School of Archaeology, University College Dublin, Belfield,Dublin 4, Ireland (2) Archaeological Studies Program, University of the PhilippinesDiliman, Quezon City, Manila, Philippines (3) School of Archaeology and Ancient History, University ofLeicester, Leicester, UK (4) Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, RLAHA RLAHA Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art (Oxford University, UK), University ofOxford, Oxford, UK (5) Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, AustralianNational University, Canberra, Australia (6) Archaeology Division, National Museum of the Philippines,Manila, PhilippinesTable 1. Main contexts and generalised sequence in the east mouth(east mouth excavation team).Layers 1-2 As Szabo et al. (2004); frequent burials (not listed), cut/fill of pit727 700 Deepest inhumation; beads, conch, tusks, stone-covered BURIALS741 Shell line dipping east732 East of 727, layer of red silt dipping east733 West of 727, layer of red silt underlying 732802 = 803 Shell layer in west section, dipping south731 & 789 Piles & layers of crushed shells, on rock fall745 Crushed shell layer746 & 747 Layers of red silt, tipping south (746) & west of rock fall (747)Rock falls (no number)771 Crushed shells under rock fall, in south end332 Shell midden (=390 = Layer 3 Szabo et al. 2004) SHELL MIDDEN334 = 718 Organic silt under shell midden (=391 = Layer 4 Szabo et al. 2004)763 Hearth within 718 at 150cm W3N2759-760 Silt layer (759) with layer of small pebbles (760)758 Clayey silt layer; at base, cremation found on top of 336 stone336 Reddish-brown silty clay; limestone/ speleothems, hearths & burning deposits (=392 = Layer 5 Szabo et al. 2004)764 Cobbles within 336 140-160cm W2N4778 Dark brown silt; crushed shells771 Dark brown silt, frequent animal bones & turtle carapace769 'Melted' limestone extending across trench (within 2004 context 336)784 As 336, but more cobble piles, surfaces and hearth remains (=337)768 Hearth/activity area; stones, frequent charred & burnt remains, chert790, 797 Burning & stone arrangements; 790 had 801 chert flakes850 Similar to 336338 Clay-rich layer with frequent small limestone boulders807 Interface of 784 & 806; boulders, animal bones, shells HEARTHS806 Compact orange clay, limestone pea grit gravels, no finds/bones866 Compact yellowish-orange clay; animal bones, antler, chert, charcoal1306 As 806, angular stones1307 As 866, but no cultural remains; angular to subangular stones1308 As 806, rounded stones1309 As 866, no cultural remains; rounded stones CLAY & GRAVELSTable 2. Radiocarbon dates from the east mouth of Ille Cave 2004-6(compiled by H. Lewis, after T. Higham & Oxford Radiocarbon AcceleratorUnit 2005-2007, pers. comm.). Results are calibrated using IntCal04(Reimer et al. 2004). Uncalibrated dates use the half life of 5568years with isotopic fractionation corrected using the [delta] [sup.13]Cvalues listed (to [+ or -] 0.3 per mil relative to VPDB). Thepre-treatment, target preparation and AMS measurement used followBronk Ramsey et al. (2004) & Hedges et al. (1989). Dates are presentedby depth, although due to slope this does not always equate tostratigraphic sequence (e.e. [866] underlies [807]--see Table 1).Sample Information ORAU InfoSample Material & Context/location Sample No.IV-1998-P-16943 Charcoal, N1 W3 100-120cm [731] OxA-14959IV-1998-P-23076 Charcoal, 100-120cm [758] OxA-16095IV-1998-P-23075a Crem. bone, Cremation [758] OxA-16020 (Specimen A)IV-1998-P-23075b Crem. bone, Cremation [758] OxA-15982 (Specimen B)IV-1998-P-15837 Charcoal, 2004r 153cm [335] L5 OxA-14898IV-1998-P-15839 Charcoal, 20040 153cm [3351 L5 OxA-14893IV-1998-P-20497 Charcoal, 2004 155cm OxA-16153IV-1998-P-16782 Charcoal, 2004 166cm OxA-14960IV-1998-P-15828 Charcoal, 2004k 170cm [336] OxA-14894IV-1998-P-15824 Charcoal, 2004a 170cm [336] OxA-14897IV-1998-P-1583 Charcoal, 2004h 175cm [336] OxA-14899IV-1998-P-15832 Charcoal, 2004d 177cm [336] OxA-14896IV-1998-P-18309 Charcoal, 180cm [3361 = [717] OxA-15817IV-1998-P-18310 Charcoal, 180cm [769] OxA-15766IV-1998-P-15829 Charcoal, 2004g 183cm [336] OxA-14592IV-1998-P-18308 Charcoal, 185cm [784] OxA-15873IV-1998-P-18311 Charcoal, 185cm [784] OxA-15818IV-1998-P-15825 Charcoal, 2004b 200cm [337] OxA-14163IV-1998-P-30189 Charcoal, N4W2 240-255cm [866] OxA-16666IV-1998-P-30194 Charcoal, N3W3 250-260cm [807] OxA-16657Sample Information ORAU Info Calibration [delta] CalibrationSample [sup.13]C Uncal BP Unmod. CalIV-1998-P-16943 -23.5 5802 [+ or -] 38 4546-4767IV-1998-P-23076 -29.9 5769 [+ or -] 37 4531-4715 4580-4690 4550-4570IV-1998-P-23075a -19.4 8155 [+ or -] 50 7057-7313 7230-7250 7060-7190IV-1998-P-23075b -25.5 8315 [+ or -] 50 7189-7516 7331-7477 7189-7230IV-1998-P-15837 -24.5 8545 [+ or -] 40 7531-7602IV-1998-P-15839 -24.3 8705 [+ or -] 40 7597-7936IV-1998-P-20497 -27.2 8705 [+ or -] 45 7596-7938 7890-7940 7600-7750IV-1998-P-16782 -27.8 9400 [+ or -] 45 8566-8785IV-1998-P-15828 -26.6 8920 [+ or -] 45 7956-8250IV-1998-P-15824 -25.6 8970 [+ or -] 45 7969-8284IV-1998-P-1583 -26.3 8799 [+ or -] 40 7715-8183IV-1998-P-15832 -25.8 8860 [+ or -] 45 7817-8223IV-1998-P-18309 -26.6 8795 [+ or -] 45 7650-8200IV-1998-P-18310 -25.6 8830 [+ or -] 45 8020-8210IV-1998-P-15829 -25.4 9340 [+ or -] 45 8740-8470IV-1998-P-18308 -27.2 8725 [+ or -] 55 7946-7600 7796-7610 7815-7802IV-1998-P-18311 -25.4 8790 [+ or -] 40 7990-8170IV-1998-P-15825 -25.0 9740 [+ or -] 75 8838-9338IV-1998-P-30189 -30.1 12120 [+ or -] 60 11871-12168IV-1998-P-30194 -25.9 9215 [+ or -] 45 8302-8555Sample BC/AD % Cal BP Prob.IV-1998-P-16943 BC 95.4% 6494-6677 0.980 6687-6690 0.003 6704-6716 0.017IV-1998-P-23076 BC 95.4% 6481-6662 1.000 BC 60.3% 6508-6517 0.076 BC 7.9% 6532-6574 0.394 6577-6634 0.530IV-1998-P-23075a BC 95.4% 9006-9260 1.000 BC 68.3% 9183-9190 0.031 BC 9012-9135 0.969IV-1998-P-23075b BC 95.4% 9280-9425 1.000 BC 68.2% 9464-9137 0.931 BC 0.069IV-1998-P-15837 BC 95.4% 9480-9550 1.000IV-1998-P-15839 BC 95.4% 9546-9784 0.985 9850-9863 0.009 9877-9885 0.006IV-1998-P-20497 BC 92.7% 9559-9696 1.000 BC 2.7% 9545-9796 0.961 BC 68.2% 9804-9817 0.011 9848-9866 0.018 9875-9886 0.010IV-1998-P-16782 BC 95.4% 10515-10733 1.000IV-1998-P-15828 BC 95.4% 9905-10198 1.000IV-1998-P-15824 BC 95.4% 9918-10071 0.413 10115-10232 0.587IV-1998-P-1583 BC 95.4% 9663-9951 0.891 9990-10012 0.014 10024-10040 0.010 10061-10132 0.085IV-1998-P-15832 BC 95.4% 9745-9748 0.003 9766-10171 0.997IV-1998-P-18309 BC 95.4% 9627-9953 0.881 9989-100013 0.017 10022-10041 0.012 10060-10134 0.089 10143-10146 0.002IV-1998-P-18310 BC 95.4% 9701-9964 0.656 9984-10154 0.344IV-1998-P-15829 BC 95.4% 10419-10472 0.097 10476-10687 0.903IV-1998-P-18308 BC 95.4% 9549-9895 1.000 BC 68.3% 9559-9745 0.945 BC 9751-9764 0.055IV-1998-P-18311 BC 95.4% 9627-9939 0.934 9994-10006 0.007 10029-10036 0.004 10064-10120 0.056IV-1998-P-15825 BC 95.4% 10786-10974 0.220 10990-11032 0.240 11062-11273 0.756IV-1998-P-30189 BC 95.4% 13820-14116 1.000 68.3% 13890-14048 1.000IV-1998-P-30194 BC 95.4% 10252-10501 1.000 68.3% 10283-10425 0.924 10467-10480 0.076Table 3. List of hunted mammalian taxa identified in the early tomid-Holocene deposits (P. Piper & J. Ochoa). Taxonomy followsEsselstyn et al. (2004) except (1) Lucchini et al. (2005). * Initialmorphometric analyses suggest more than one taxon represented.Analytical data to be published independently.Order Family TaxonPrimates Cercopithecidae Macuca fascicularisPholidota Manidae Manis culionensisCarnivora Felidae Prionailurus bengalensis Mustelidae Amblonyx cinereus Mephitidae Mydaus marchei Herpestidae Herpestes brachyurus Viverridae Paradoxurus hermaphroditus Arctictis binturongArtiodactyla Cervidae Axis/Cervus spp. * Suidae Sus cf. ahoenobarbus (1)Order Family Common namePrimates Cercopithecidae Long-tailed macaquePholidota Manidae Palawan pangolinCarnivora Felidae Leopard cat Mustelidae Oriental small-clawed otter Mephitidae Palawan stink badger Herpestidae Short-tailed mongoose Viverridae Common palm civet BinturongArtiodactyla Cervidae Deer Suidae Palawan wild boarTable 4. Number of individual specimens (NISP) of selected faunarecorded to date from the east mouth, presented from youngest tooldest major mid-Holocene to late Pleistocene contexts (P. Piper& J. Ochoa). Monitor SmallCONTEXT Deer Pig Turtle Lizard Macaque Carnivores332 (shell midden) 8 190 20 47 41 15334 0 17 3 4 7 6336 6 6 70 11 5 3769 0 10 9 5 6 1784 8 12 72 37 21 19807 16 9 43 13 13 4866 288 14 68 7 13 3TOTAL 326 258 285 124 106 51Table 5. Summary of use-wear analysis of 16 used tools from the eastmouth deep occupation sequence (H. Barton). Tool number is NationalMuseum of the Philippines accession number, beginning with IV-1998-P(site code), or an independent series (IC) where no accession numberwas given. Individual used edges are identified by letters, wherenumber of letters denotes number of used edges. Scars: SN (snap),F (feather), H (hinge), ST (step).Number Type Used edge Macro MicroIC001 (no #) Retouched A ST, H None broken flake B H NoneIC003 (no #) Retouched A H -- flake14726 Unretouched A None SN, F H flake14727 Core A, B, C None ST16310 Flake A None F14730 Flake A None None15228 Bipolar flake A None FIC016 (no #) Bipolar core A, B F FIC017 (no #) Flaked piece A, B None None16309A Bipolar core A None None16309B Bipolar flake A F F B None F, SN16309C Bipolar core A None None14775 Bipolar flake A F, H, SN, ST FIC044 (no #) Flaked piece A None NoneIC045 (no #) Bipolar core A None None14090 Bipolar A None None fragmentNumber Rounding Striations PolishIC001 (no #) Slight None Present Heavy Parallel PresentIC003 (no #) Moderate None Present14726 Slight None Present14727 Heavy Transverse Present16310 None None None14730 Heavy None None15228 None None NoneIC016 (no #) Heavy Transverse PresentIC017 (no #) Heavy Transverse Present16309A Heavy Transverse Present16309B None None Present None None Present16309C Slight None Present14775 Slight None PresentIC044 (no #) Slight None PresentIC045 (no #) Heavy None Present14090 Heavy Transverse PresentNumber Development Mode of useIC001 (no #) Weak Unknown Weak CuttingIC003 (no #) Weak, restricted to Scraping edge and high zones of flake scars14726 Bright, patchy, smooth Shaving/slicing with pitting and reticulate away from the edge14727 Bright, smooth Planing16310 Weak Scraping14730 N/A Scraping15228 N/A UnknownIC016 (no #) Bright, smooth PlaningIC017 (no #) Bright, smooth with Planing some pitting16309A Bright, smooth with some pitting16309B Weak Shaving/slicing Weak Shaving/slicing16309C Weak Planing14775 Weak Cutting/slicingIC044 (no #) Weak Cutting/slicingIC045 (no #) Bright, reticulate Planing14090 Bright, smooth with Planing some pittingNumber InterpretationIC001 (no #) Unknown use Cutting/slicing soft material--plant?IC003 (no #) Scraping medium/hard material14726 Shaving medium wood/plant14727 Planing siliceous plant; very heavily worn edge, flattened16310 Light duty scraping14730 Scraping hard material (residue)15228 Possibly not usedIC016 (no #) Planing siliceous plant; edge very heavily worn, flattened in placesIC017 (no #) Planing siliceous plant; edge very heavily worn, flattened in places16309A Planing siliceous plant16309B Medium material Medium material16309C Planing siliceous plant14775 Soft to medium materialIC044 (no #) Cutting/slicing soft to medium plantIC045 (no #) Planing wood or siliceous plant14090 Planing siliceous plant