Teacher perceptions of the useability of intervention information from personal versus data-based sources.

Teacher perceptions of the useability of intervention information from personal versus data-based sources. Abstract One prominent issue in contemporary special education is thatteaching techniques found by research to be effective in improving theeducational outcomes of students with disabilities are not routinelyimplemented. One way to enhance teachers' use of research-basedpractices is to disseminate dis��sem��i��nate?v. dis��sem��i��nat��ed, dis��sem��i��nat��ing, dis��sem��i��natesv.tr.1. To scatter widely, as in sowing seed.2. information on effective teaching techniquesin ways that teachers find "useable;" that is, in a mannerthat enables teachers to understand how the technique can be used intheir classrooms with their students. We investigated teachers'perceptions of the useability of information describing theeffectiveness of reading interventions presented in two formats:data-based (emphasizing research findings) and personal (based on thepersonal experiences of a veteran teacher). 127 general and specialeducation teachers attending graduate courses at two large mid-westernuniversities participated in the study. A 2 X 2 ANCOVA ANCOVA Analysis of Covariance indicatedstatistically significant effects related to (a) the covariate ofteaching experience (more experienced teachers tended to feel that theinformation presented was less useable, regardless of format) and (b)information format (teachers rated the personal format as more useablethan data-based information). Implications of these findings for howinformation on research-based teaching techniques is disseminated toteachers are discussed. ********** A common theme in most discussions of educational improvement overthe last decade, particularly in the area of special education, has beenthe need to better translate research into practice (e.g., Carnine,1995, 1997; Cook, Landrum, Tankersley & Kauffman, 2003; Stone,1998). Central to most treatments of this topic is the apparent wealthof data-based practices that has accumulated from educational research(see Forness, Kavale, Blum, & Lloyd, 1997), contrasted with theobservation that much of what occurs in classrooms may lack empiricalvalidation An empirical validation of a hypothesis is required for it to gain acceptance in the scientific community. Normally this validation is achieved by the scientific method of hypothesis commitment, experimental design, peer review, adversarial review, reproduction of results, (e.g., Kauffman, 1996). The implications of this gap betweenresearch and practice for students with disabilities are both clear andominous: the most effective instructional techniques currently availableapparently are not routinely brought to bear on those students whorequire them the most to achieve their potential. Although there is some dissent even within the field of specialeducation (e.g., Gallagher, 1998), an emerging consensus suggests thatthere is a substantial body of literature to guide instruction andclassroom management (Cook & Schirmer, 2003; Heward, 2003; Mostert& Crockett, 1999-2000). In their review, for example, Forness et al.(1997) offered an overview and calculation of average effect sizes for anumber of classroom practices for which substantial empirical evidencehas accrued. The practices Forness et al. denote de��note?tr.v. de��not��ed, de��not��ing, de��notes1. To mark; indicate: a frown that denoted increasing impatience.2. as "interventionsthat work" by virtue of their high average effect sizes were:mnemonic Pronounced "ni-mon-ic." A memory aid. In programming, it is a name assigned to a machine function. For example, COM1 is the mnemonic assigned to serial port #1 on a PC. Programming languages are almost entirely mnemonics. instruction, enhancing reading comprehension, behaviormodification behavior modificationn.1. The use of basic learning techniques, such as conditioning, biofeedback, reinforcement, or aversion therapy, to teach simple skills or alter undesirable behavior.2. See behavior therapy. , Direct Instruction, cognitive behavior modification Cognitive Behavior Modification (CBM) is a therapeutic technique in which clients challenge their internal beliefs and assumptions regarding matters that are upsetting them. The objective is to eliminate debilitating cognitions and replace them with productive ones. ,formative evaluation Formative evaluation is a type of evaluation which has the purpose of improving programmes. It goes under other names such as developmental evaluation and implementation evaluation. , and early intervention ear��ly interventionn. Abbr. EIA process of assessment and therapy provided to children, especially those younger than age 6, to facilitate normal cognitive and emotional development and to prevent developmental disability or delay. . A number of other reviewsoffer similar synopses of evidence-based practices. Williams, Williams,and McLaughlin (1991) offered a review of interventions that have shownpositive effects with students with behavior disorders, among themcontingent teacher attention, token reinforcement systems, and timeoutfrom positive reinforcement positive reinforcement,n a technique used to encourage a desirable behavior. Also calledpositive feedback, in which the patient or subject receives encouraging and favorable communication from another person. . Swanson and Hoskyn (1998) conducted ameta-analysis of 180 intervention studies intervention studies,n.pl the epidemiologic investigations designed to test a hypothesized cause and effect relation by modifying the supposed causal factor(s) in the study population. including students withlearning disabilities. They found that three instructional componentspredicted increases in the learning outcomes of students with learningdisabilities: control of task difficulty, teaching in small andinteractive groups, and directed response/questioning. Despite this accumulation of evidence on effective practices,observational studies suggest that these are implemented on a limited orhaphazard hap��haz��ard?adj.Dependent upon or characterized by mere chance. See Synonyms at chance.n.Mere chance; fortuity.adv.By chance; casually. basis at best. Contingent teacher attention provides anexcellent example. Despite overwhelming evidence of the positiveinfluence of teacher praise (e.g., Alber & Heward, 1997; Hall, Lund,& Jackson, 1968; Hasazi & Hasazi, 1972; McAllister, Stachowiak,Baer, & Conderman, 1969; Schutte & Hopkins, 1970), Strain et al.(1983) found that teachers attended to children's compliance onlyabout 10% of the time; in this study 82% of the children who were ratedlow in social adjustment did not receive positive consequences forcompliance at all. Indeed, Wehby, Symons, Canale, and Go (1998)concluded from the existing literature on teacher attention that"teacher praise ... is almost nonexistent non��ex��is��tence?n.1. The condition of not existing.2. Something that does not exist.non in classrooms forchildren with E/BD" (p. 51). The conclusion drawn by Wehby et al.implies that the educational experiences of students with disabilitiessuffer because teachers do not consistently utilize research-basedteaching techniques--in this case, teacher praise. Exemplifying ex��em��pli��fy?tr.v. ex��em��pli��fied, ex��em��pli��fy��ing, ex��em��pli��fies1. a. To illustrate by example: exemplify an argument.b. thesignificance of this problem, Cook and Schirmer (2003), in theiroverview of a series of articles addressing the degree to which specialeducation is truly special, suggested that "it is the inability ofthe field to persistently apply empirically validated practices withfidelity that most jeopardizes the specialness and justifiability ofspecial education.... [F]or special education to completely realize itspromise ... the field needs to implement what we know to work" (p.204). Thus, one of the most consequential con��se��quen��tial?adj.1. Following as an effect, result, or conclusion; consequent.2. Having important consequences; significant: challenges in contemporaryspecial education appears to be finding ways to increase the frequencywith which teachers use research-based teaching techniques. Carnine (1995, 1997) has proposed that one reason teachers do notutilize research findings in their classrooms is that research istypically not presented in such a way that teachers can readily applyit. Research reports, in addition to being accessible and trustworthy,must exhibit "useability" if they are to be consistentlyapplied by most teachers. Essentially, when teachers read or hear aboutresearch findings that demonstrate useability, they can quicklyrecognize how interventions or teaching methods apply to their classroomand believe that they can implement the techniques with their students.Obviously, this is a critical element in bridging theresearch-to-practice gap. If teachers do not deem research relevant totheir own classrooms and students, or cannot readily envision how toapply research-supported practices, there is little or no chance thatthey will use such techniques, regardless of how effective research hasdemonstrated them to be. Unfortunately, "educational research isoften seen as not being as useable as it needs to be" (Carnine,1997, p. 515). To combat the low level of useability often found inreports of educational research, Carnine (1997) suggests that, amongother strategies, "research knowledge about effective tools andpractices and successful use should ... be teacher friendly" (p.516). Cook and Cook (2004) suggested that teachers tend to respondpositively to other teachers describing what teaching practices workedin their classrooms. In fact, when Landrum et al. (2002) asked teachersto rate the useability of information from different sources,teachers' colleagues received significantly higher ratings than didprofessional journals. Testimonies regarding the efficacy of a teachingtechnique may come with an implicit endorsement of useability whencoming from a fellow teacher. If another teacher is endorsing thepractice, it appears logical to conclude that the technique can and hasbeen used successfully in an actual classroom environment. Thus,communicating research findings from the perspective of a fellow teachermay be one way to enhance the teacher-friendliness of research, enhanceteachers' perceptions of its useability, and increase thecorresponding likelihood that they will implement what the researchliterature supports in their classrooms. In this study, we sought to provide an experimental examination ofthe effect of presentation format on teachers' perception ofuseability with regard to intervention information. In particular, wewere interested in comparing teachers' views regarding theuseability of teaching techniques presented in a format typically foundin professional journals (i.e., "data-based") versus apersonal or anecdotal anecdotal/an��ec��do��tal/ (an?ek-do��t'l) based on case histories rather than on controlled clinical trials. anecdotaladjective Unsubstantiated; occurring as single or isolated event. style more closely approximating a colleaguerelaying their own experiences. We hypothesized that teachers wouldperceive the anecdotal format more positively in terms of useability, asthey are more likely to relate to research findings and frame theirthinking in terms of classroom application when that information comesfrom someone who has actually used the technique described. We alsoinvestigated the effect of teaching experience on teachers'attitudes toward the useability of intervention information about whichthey had read. We hypothesized that teachers with greater experiencewould likely have become entrenched en��trench? also in��trenchv. en��trenched, en��trench��ing, en��trench��esv.tr.1. To provide with a trench, especially for the purpose of fortifying or defending.2. in their beliefs and routinesregarding their teaching practices, and would therefore be lessenthusiastic about using techniques presented in a single readingregardless of the format of the information. We also analyzed the effectof teacher background (i.e., general education versus special education)on teachers' perceptions of useability. It is possible thatdifferences in training and experiences between general' andspecial educators result in different views regarding the degree towhich descriptions of a teaching technique are useable. Method Sample One hundred and twenty-seven experienced general and specialeducation teachers participated in the investigation as part of a largerstudy (see Landrum et al., 2002). Data collection was conducted in eightmasters-level methods courses required by special and general educationteaching training programs at two large Mid-western universities.Although many pre-service teachers attended these classes, onlyindividuals with teaching experience were retained in the sample.Special and general education teaching groups were created as a functionof special education teaching experience. Individuals with specialeducation teaching experience (i.e., only special education teachingexperience, or both special and general education teaching experience)were considered to be special educators, whereas those with only generaleducation teaching experience were considered to be general educators.The final sample was comprised of 67 general educators and 60 specialeducators. Demographic information of participants is summarized, byteaching affiliation, in Table 1. Instrumentation The instrument described three procedures for teaching reading(sound-symbol correspondence, word banks, and blending exercises) in oneof two formats. One format presented intervention information from adata-based perspective; the alternate form presented the sameinformation from a personal perspective. Table 2 includes excerpts fromeach format. The empirical or data-based form was similar in writingstyle to that found in professional journals and described theintervention by referencing fictitious Based upon a fabrication or pretense.A fictitious name is an assumed name that differs from an individual's actual name. A fictitious action is a lawsuit brought not for the adjudication of an actual controversy between the parties but merely for the purpose of research studies (e.g.,"from a review of studies on blending skill, Donaldson (1990)concluded that ..."). This format did not include explicitstatistical information (e.g., results of statistical analyses or levelsof significance), but did include references to research studies in thetext, in standard APA (All Points Addressable) Refers to an array (bitmapped screen, matrix, etc.) in which all bits or cells can be individually manipulated. APA - Application Portability Architecture format. The personal format of the instrumentpresented the same information as a personal account written by anexperienced teacher. For example, instead of noting that "researchhas shown that ...," the personal format included statements like"I have successfully used ..." The content of the two formatswas matched to include the same concepts and depth of coverage; the onlydifference was the data-based and personal reporting styles. Participants rated the useability of the described teachingprocedures by rating four items related to the useability of thetechniques described on a one (strongly disagree) to four (stronglyagree) Likert scale Likert scaleA subjective scoring system that allows a person being surveyed to quantify likes and preferences on a 5-point scale, with 1 being the least important, relevant, interesting, most ho-hum, or other, and 5 being most excellent, yeehah important, etc : 1. I would use the procedures described 2. The teaching procedures described are easy to use 3. Information in this format is/will be useful to me 4. Other teachers would find information in this format useful Participants' mean ratings of these four items represented atotal useability score. Cronbach's alpha Cronbach's (alpha) has an important use as a measure of the reliability of a psychometric instrument. It was first named as alpha by Cronbach (1951), as he had intended to continue with further instruments. for this scale wasestimated to be .71. The content validity content validity,n the degree to which an experiment or measurement actually reflects the variable it has been designed to measure. of the items is supported bythe direct nature of the inquiries. Procedure All three authors conducted data collection. They were introducedby instructors to the classes in which data were to be collected, andthey assured potential participants that their participation wasvoluntary and that their anonymity would be maintained. The two forms ofthe instrument were distributed randomly to those agreeing toparticipate so that approximately equal numbers of teachers received thedata-based description and the personal description. Participantsfollowed written directions for responding to the Likert rating scalesafter reading the personal or data-based descriptions of the threeteaching methods. Return rate of surveys from students in attendanceduring data collection was 100%. Sixty-one participants (31 generaleducators and 30 special educator) rated the data-based description,whereas 66 (36 general educators and 30 special educators) responded tothe personal format. The difference in number of participants associatedwith the two presentation formats is due to excluding unequal numbers ofindividuals from the two groups who did not have any teaching experiencefrom the final sample. After completing the ratings analyzed in theinvestigation reported here, participants then completed a separate formexamining their perceptions of the useability, accessibility, andtrustworthiness trustworthinessEthics A principle in which a person both deserves the trust of others and does not violate that trust of different sources of information reported by Landrumet al. (2002). Research Design and Data Analysis An experimental design was employed to measure the impact ofpresentation format (data-based versus personal) among general andspecial education teachers' perceptions of the useability ofintervention information. We conducted a 2 x 2 ANCOVA with useabilityscores (participants' average ratings on the four useability items)as the dependent variable, teaching affiliation and format ofinformation as between-subjects factors, and total teaching experienceas the covariate. If the covariate of teaching experience was not foundto have a significant effect regarding the dependent variable, it wouldbe dropped from that analysis (which would then become a 2 x 2 ANOVA anovasee analysis of variance.ANOVAAnalysis of variance, see there ). Results Means and standard deviations of useability scores for general andspecial educators are presented by information format in Table 3. Theresults of the 2 x 2 ANCOVA indicated that the covariate of teachingexperience had a statistically significant effect on teachers'ratings of the useability of the information presented (F(1,122) = 6.18,p = .01, d = 0.45). An inverse relation In mathematics, the inverse relation of a binary relation is the relation taken 'backwards', as in changing the relation 'child of' to 'parent of'. In formal terms, if between teaching experience anduseability ratings was found. Although the main effect of teacheraffiliation was not significant (F (1,122) = 2.31, p = .13, d = 0.26),the main effect of information format was (F (1,122) = 5.11, p = .02, d= 0.38). Information presented using the personal format received higheruseability ratings than the data-based information. The teacheraffiliation by presentation format interaction was not significant (F(1,122) = 0.61, p = .44). Discussion We interpreted the results to indicate that regardless of teacheraffiliation (i.e., general or special educator), (a) information relatedto teaching interventions was perceived more useable when presented in apersonal format (compared to a data-based format) and (b) greaterteaching experience was associated with less positive useabilityratings. These findings merit discussion in at least three ways: (a)explanation and interpretation, (b) implications and recommendations,and (c) limitations and suggestions for future research. Explanation and Interpretation Participants expressed relatively positive attitudes toward theuseability of the described techniques for both presentation formats andregardless of teacher affiliation. Average ratings for either group ofteachers in both presentation formats exceeded 3 (on the 1 to 4 scale, atheoretical neutral point is 2.5). An optimistic op��ti��mist?n.1. One who usually expects a favorable outcome.2. A believer in philosophical optimism.op interpretation ofteachers' moderately positive useability ratings might suggest thatmost teachers are predisposed pre��dis��pose?v. pre��dis��posed, pre��dis��pos��ing, pre��dis��pos��esv.tr.1. a. To make (someone) inclined to something in advance: to at least considering implementation ofteaching techniques about which they have read--which is potentially afirst step in bridging the research-to-practice gap. It is also possiblethat the high ratings are a reflection of the techniques portrayed. Thetechniques are described as impacting reading, a critically importantacademic area in which teachers are often seeking new methods forimproving student performance. The techniques are also described asbeing "simple" and thus may have been interpreted asrelatively easy to use. Furthermore, we specifically chose and describedpractices that were as neutral as possible. That is, they were notnecessarily based on the state-of-the-art in scientifically basedreading instruction, but neither were they outlandish out��land��ish?adj.1. Conspicuously unconventional; bizarre. See Synonyms at strange.2. Strikingly unfamiliar.3. Located far from civilized areas.4. Archaic Of foreign origin; not native. or outside therealm of practices that would seem to have reasonable instructionalutility. As we discuss later, this represents a potential limitation ofthe study. Perhaps participating teachers were, to one degree oranother, familiar with and positively predisposed toward thesetechniques. Despite differences in how they are trained and differences in who,how, what, and where they might teach, no significant differences werefound between special and general education teachers regarding theirperceptions of the useability of the described teaching techniques. Itis possible that feelings regarding the useability of instructionalpractices have more to do with the basic problems of classroom teaching(e.g., simultaneously instructing multiple students with differentneeds) rather than specific aspects of teaching, such as the number orlearning characteristics of students being taught. Teachers with more experience expressed less positive feelingsregarding the useability of the described teaching techniques,regardless of presentation format. We conjecture CONJECTURE. Conjectures are ideas or notions founded on probabilities without any demonstration of their truth. Mascardus has defined conjecture: "rationable vestigium latentis veritatis, unde nascitur opinio sapientis;" or a slight degree of credence arising from evidence too weak or too that this is due toexperienced teachers, particularly in a fundamental area of instructionsuch as reading, having developed firm beliefs through protracted pro��tract?tr.v. pro��tract��ed, pro��tract��ing, pro��tracts1. To draw out or lengthen in time; prolong: disputants who needlessly protracted the negotiations.2. personal experience about what works for them in their classrooms. Ifexperienced teachers do not already use the techniques described, theymay be less likely than inexperienced in��ex��pe��ri��ence?n.1. Lack of experience.2. Lack of the knowledge gained from experience.in teachers who are not as entrenchedin their instructional routines to be willing to try them. The finding that teachers perceived the same information to be moreuseable when described in a personal, as compared to a data-based,format may be a reflection of teachers' general opinions of theirown colleagues, of research, and of researchers. Teachers seekinstructional techniques that address the complex and demandingrealities of their classrooms and students. They desire information oninstruction that meets these complex needs, yet is easily understandableand can be readily translated into practice. One important type ofvalidation regarding the useability of an instructional technique is theendorsement of another teacher, and perhaps especially an experiencedteacher. A teaching technique that is positively presented by oneteacher to another may carry the implicit endorsement of being"battle tested" because it comes from someone who hasintrinsic credibility due to their shared experiences and perspectivesof being classroom teachers. This explanation of the appeal ofintervention information written from the personal perspective of ateacher may also underlie a phenomenon we have frequently witnessed.Teachers are more apt to respond positively to a teaching technique,especially in regard to the useability of the intervention, when anotherteacher presents it than when someone who is viewed as an outsider tothe world of schools (e.g., a researcher) advocates it. Alternatively, many data-based reports of research commonly foundin professional educational journals target researchers and thereforefocus on issues such as reliability, validity, statistical significance,and effect size--concepts with which teachers may have limitedbackground, facility, or confidence. Indeed, Gersten (2001) hassuggested that teachers, even more than professionals in other fields,are cynical toward research. Part of this antagonism antagonism/an��tag��o��nism/ (an-tag��o-nizm) opposition or contrariety between similar things, as between muscles, medicines, or organisms; cf. antibiosis. an��tag��o��nismn. may stem from lackof training in research design and statistics. For example, Abbott,Walton, Tapia, and Greenwood (1999) state that, "because themajority of teacher educators neither conduct research nor assignreading of research articles as part of preservice training, teacherslearn to disregard research from the moment they enter the field"(p. 340). However, we believe that there is something more thaninsufficient preparation at work. Indeed, the data-based reportsparticipants read in this study did not include any technicalinformation related to statistics or research design (although weacknowledge that the data-based format may have involved slightlygreater linguistic complexity that the personal format, and we did notcontrol for this potential difference). We suggest that a more likelyexplanation is that teachers may often view researchers as residing inan ivory tower ivory towern.A place or attitude of retreat, especially preoccupation with lofty, remote, or intellectual considerations rather than practical everyday life. that is far removed from the realm of classroom teaching(see Landrum, 1997; Landrum & Tankersley, 2004). Hence, the researchthey produce is likely to be seen by teachers as neither addressing therealities of classrooms nor easy to apply. Implications and Recommendations Because of the importance of teachers' perceptions of theuse-ability of reports of research on teaching techniques, the currentfindings carry a number of implications for bridging theresearch-to-practice gap. We caution that our findings may be limited topracticing teachers, and specifically to those enrolled in graduatecoursework courseworkNounwork done by a student and assessed as part of an educational courseNoun 1. coursework - work assigned to and done by a student during a course of study; usually it is evaluated as part of the student's , but nonetheless offer the following potentialinterpretations of the difference we observed. Teachers' beliefthat a technique is useable--in other words, that it can be readilyapplied in their classroom given the information provided--would seem tobe a precondition pre��con��di��tion?n.A condition that must exist or be established before something can occur or be considered; a prerequisite.tr.v. for the ultimate implementation of techniquesdisseminated by researchers. The other characteristics of researchfindings that Carnine (1995, 1997) hypothesized are essential forresearch to be applied (trustworthiness and accessibility) are certainlyimportant, but not as critical in our view as useability. We conjecturethat many teachers trust that a wide array of teaching techniques can beeffective, including some practices that have not been empiricallylinked to increased student outcomes. Indeed, this may be one of thecentral causes of the research-to-practice gap that pervadescontemporary education (see Kauffman, 1996). Accessibility, althoughalso significant, may be the easiest of Carnine's conditions toaddress. Written material describing effective interventions can be madealmost universally available in schools (whether on paper or inelectronic format) and teachers' access to the internet furtherenhances researchers' abilities to disseminate material in avariety of formats to teachers. Alternatively, we have anecdotally heardfrom many teachers that although they know an intervention that theyhave read about (i.e., accessed) works for some teachers and students(i.e., trustworthiness), it will not work in their class or with theirstudents (i.e., useability). As such, we believe that providinginformation that is perceived by teachers as useable is a criticalconcern for those interested in bridging the research-to-practice gap. Given the inverse relation found in our sample between teacherexperience and useability ratings, we hypothesize hy��poth��e��size?v. hy��poth��e��sized, hy��poth��e��siz��ing, hy��poth��e��siz��esv.tr.To assert as a hypothesis.v.intr.To form a hypothesis. that convincingveteran teachers to consider implementing a teaching technique aboutwhich they read might be a particularly daunting daunt?tr.v. daunt��ed, daunt��ing, dauntsTo abate the courage of; discourage. See Synonyms at dismay.[Middle English daunten, from Old French danter, from Latin challenge. It is alsolikely an important challenge to address given the leadership roles thatveteran teachers often fill in schools and the influence they may exerton the development of their less experienced colleagues (Rob-bins &Zirinsky, 1996). One strategy that might be drawn from the currentfindings for improving teachers' perceptions about the potentialuseability of teaching information is to present that information in apersonal format. Perhaps veteran teachers, who are more likely to be setin their ways regarding their teaching, will require especiallycompelling personal testimonies to feel that techniques they read aboutare useable. Foegen, Espin, Allinder, and Markell (2001) suggested thatresearchers consider utilizing the concept of vividness in theirresearch reports in order to improve teachers' reaction to theirwork. Enhancing the vividness of information, by providing descriptiveexamples of how a technique worked with a particular teacher or student,for example, makes information seem more real and personal, and thus mayincrease the degree to which teachers can envision themselves using theprocedure. This approach may be particularly important whendisseminating information to veteran teachers. Probably the most significant implication of this research isderived from the finding that presentation format resulted insignificantly different ratings of useability regarding informationabout reading instruction. Regardless of teacher affiliation, teachersperceived the same information to be more useable when it was presentedfrom the perspective of a teacher as opposed to a more typical report ofresearch findings. If the aim of a research report is for teachers toapply the findings, it appears that the standard data-based method ofreporting research in professional journals is not the most effectiveformat for communicating research to teachers. We recommend that thoseinvolved in disseminating research on effective instructional techniquesto teachers consider a number of strategies that incorporate thepersonal perspective of teachers. Some journals and reports of researchhave multiple audiences and as such might consider including theperspectives of teachers who participated in the research or who haveexperience in using the targeted intervention, either within or inaddition to the typical research article. Alternatively, in publicationsthat target teachers exclusively, making personal reports the primaryformat for manuscripts given to teachers with only brief discussions ofand references to the empirical support underpinning un��der��pin��ning?n.1. Material or masonry used to support a structure, such as a wall.2. A support or foundation. Often used in the plural.3. Informal The human legs. Often used in the plural. these descriptionsmight result in enhanced perceptions of the useability of that research. While these findings point to a need to personalize per��son��al��ize?tr.v. per��son��al��ized, per��son��al��iz��ing, per��son��al��iz��es1. To take (a general remark or characterization) in a personal manner.2. To attribute human or personal qualities to; personify. reports ofresearch, at least for teacher audiences, we also see inherent danger insuggesting that reports regarding effective teaching practices downplay down��play?tr.v. down��played, down��play��ing, down��playsTo minimize the significance of; play down: downplayed the bad news.Verb 1. empirical results. In the absence of research data, teachers, parents,and educational reformers are left with little other than personalexperiences to guide them and the decisions they make that frame andconstitute the educational experiences of students with disabilities.Although the testimonies of many teachers are concordant with theresearch literature, there are also many teachers who support the use oftechniques that are not efficacious ef��fi��ca��cious?adj.Producing or capable of producing a desired effect. See Synonyms at effective.[From Latin effic , or may even cause educational harmto the very children who are most in need of effective educationaltreatments (i.e., children with disabilities) (see Chall, 2000;Kauffman, 1996). Thus, advocating for the use of personal experiences inthe professional literature must be qualified with the caution that itbe done only with a great deal of responsibility and painstaking pains��tak��ing?adj.Marked by or requiring great pains; very careful and diligent. See Synonyms at meticulous.n.Extremely careful and diligent work or effort. oversight. One prerequisite for strategic dissemination disseminationMedtalk The spread of a pernicious process–eg, CA, acute infection Oncology Metastasis, see there of informationon effective teaching techniques is determining which instructionalpractices actually have research support for use with students withdisabilities. The systematic application of rigorous criteria such asthose developed by the What Works Clearinghouse (http://www.w-w-c.org)might be used to establish the efficacy of educational strategies forstudents with disabilities. Similar efforts at determining what worksare underway in the application of sets of 'qualityindicators' for educational research (Cook & Tankersley, inpress; Odom et al., 2005). For those practices that are shown to clearlypossess strong empirical validation, dissemination efforts probably mustfocus on teachers' apparent proclivity pro��cliv��i��ty?n. pl. pro��cliv��i��tiesA natural propensity or inclination; predisposition. See Synonyms at predilection.[Latin pr for personal presentation. Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research Any implications of our findings should be contextualized by anumber of limitations. First, participants were persons currentlyenrolled in college coursework. Teachers not taking college courseworkmay have different perceptions about research-based practices, and mayhave reacted differently to the two formats than did currently enrolledstudents. One would hope, for example, that pursuing graduate courseworkin itself would predispose pre��dis��posev.To make susceptible, as to a disease. teachers not only toward more familiaritywith the research literature, but toward more careful consideration ofwhat research reports do and do not provide. Second, the teachingtechniques described were in a content area very familiar to mosteducators (i.e., reading). Indeed, teachers may have been familiar withor even had experience using the techniques described. We tried todescribe teaching activities in the vignettes that were probably knownand familiar, but which were not necessarily tied directly to aparticular philosophical orientation or likely to evoke contention.Nonetheless, some participants may have held strong views toward theteaching of reading and been predisposed to positive or negativeopinions about these procedures regardless of the format in which theywere presented. Strong opinions and contentious debates have longcharacterized reading education, and we did not specifically addressteachers' predispositions regarding this issue in the presentstudy. Future research efforts might address teachers'philosophical orientations toward interventions or curricular areas inconjunction with their views of data-based information. Third, it isimportant to interpret cautiously the differences we observed in ratingsas a function of presentation format, as well as the impact of teachingexperience on ratings, due to the low effect sizes associated with thesedifferences. The effect size for difference between ratings of personalversus data-based formats (d = .38) would be interpreted as"small" according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. Cohen cohenor kohen(Hebrew: “priest”) Jewish priest descended from Zadok (a descendant of Aaron), priest at the First Temple of Jerusalem. The biblical priesthood was hereditary and male. (1988). Indeed, teachers rated bothformats positively (mean ratings of greater than 3 on a 4 point Likertscale). The effect size for the relationship between teaching experienceand ratings of useability was also relatively small (d = .45). Furtherstudies with larger and more diverse samples may yield more insight intodifferences across different groups of teachers; such research effortsshould also include both preservice and practicing teachers. Furthercaution is warranted regarding the results of the scale, given itsmoderate reliability (Cronbach's alpha of .71). Finally, futurestudies should also evaluate the effect of presentation format onteachers' views of trustworthiness and accessibility. For example,it is important to know whether different presentation formats are alsoassociated with differences in the degree to which teachers trust theinstructional practices described. That is, do teachers have differentlevels of trust that a practice really works when they are exposed to itin scientific, data-based terms versus a more practical descriptionprovided by another teacher? References Abbott, M., Walton, C., Tapia, Y., & Greenwood, C. R. (1999).Research to practice: A "blueprint" for closing the gap inlocal schools. Exceptional Children, 65, 339-352. Alber, S. R., & Heward, W. L. (1997). Recruit it or lose it!Training students to recruit positive teacher attention. Intervention inSchool and Clinic, 32, 275-282. Carnine, D. (1995). Trustworthiness, useability, and accessibilityof educational research. Journal of Behavioral Education, 5, 251-258. Carnine, D. (1997). Bridging the research-to-practice gap.Exceptional Children, 63, 513-522. Chall, J. S. (2000). The academic achievement challenge. New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of :Guilford. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power for the behavioral sciences behavioral sciences,n.pl those sciences devoted to the study of human and animal behavior. (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Cook, B. G., & Cook, L. (2004). Bringing science into theclassroom by basing craft on research. Journal of Learning Disabilities,37, 240-247. Cook, B. G., Landrum, T. J., Tankersley, M., & Kauffman, J. K.(2003). Bringing research to bear on practice: Effecting evidence-basedinstruction for students with emotional or behavioral disorders.Education and Treatment of Children, 26(4), 345-361. Cook, B. G., & Schirmer, B. R. (2003). What's specialabout special education: Overview and analysis. Journal of SpecialEducation, 37, 200-205. Cook, B. G., & Tankersley, M. (2007). A preliminary examinationto identify the presence of quality indicators in experimental researchin special education. In J. B. Crockett, M. M. Gerber, & T. J.Landrum (Eds.), Achieving the radical reform of special education (pp.189-212). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Foegen, A., Espin, C. A., Allinder, R. M., & Markell, M. A.(2001). Translating research into practice: Preservice teachers'beliefs about curriculum-based measurement Curriculum-based measurement, or CBM, is an assessment method used in schools to monitor student progress by directly assessing basic academic skills in reading, spelling, writing, and mathematics. . The Journal of SpecialEducation, 34, 226-236. Forness, S. R., Kavale, K. A., Blum, I. M., & Lloyd, J. W.(1997). Mega-analysis of meta-analyses: What works in special educationand related services. Teaching Exceptional Children, 29(6), 4-10. Gallagher, D. J. (1998). The scientific knowledge base of specialeducation: Do we know what we think we know? Exceptional Children, 64,493-502. Gersten, R. (2001). Sorting out the roles of research in theimprovement of practice. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice,16, 45-50. Hall, R. V., Lund, D., & Jackson, D. (1968). Effects of teacherattention on study behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis The Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA) was established in 1968 as a The Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis is a peer-reviewed, psychology journal, that publishes research about applications of the experimental analysis of behavior to problems of social importance. , 1,1-12. Hasazi, J. E., & Hasazi, S. E. (1972). Effects of teacherattention on digit-reversal behavior in an elementary school elementary school:see school. child.Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 5, 157-162. Heward, W. L. (2003). Ten faulty notions about teaching andlearning that hinder the effectiveness of special education. The Journalof Special Education, 36, 186-205. Kauffman, J. M. (1996). Research to practice issues. BehavioralDisorders, 22, 55-60. Landrum. T. J. (1997). Why data don't matter. Journal ofBehavioral Education, 7, 123-129. Landrum, T. J., Cook, B. G., Tankersley, M. T., & Fitzgerald,S. (2002). Teachers' perceptions of the trustworthiness,useability, and accessibility of information from different sources.Remedial and Special Education, 23(1), 42-48. Landrum, T. J., & Tankersley, M. T. (2004). Science in theschoolhouse: The uninvited un��in��vit��ed?adj.Not welcome or wanted: uninvited guests.uninvitedAdjectivenot having been asked: uninvited guests guest. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37,207-212. McAllister, L., Stachowiak, J., Baer, D. M., & Conderman, L.(1969). The application of operant conditioning operant conditioningn.A process of behavior modification in which a subject is encouraged to behave in a desired manner through positive or negative reinforcement, so that the subject comes to associate the pleasure or displeasure of the techniques in asecondary school classroom. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 2,277-285. Mostert, M. P., & Crockett, J. B. (1999-2000). Reclaiming thehistory of special education for more effective practice.Exceptionality, 8(2), 133-143. Odom, S. L., Brantlinger, E., Gersten, R., Horner, R. H., Thompson,B., & Harris, K. R. (2005). Research in special education:Scientific methods and evidence-based practices. Exceptional Children,71, 137-148. Robbins, B., & Zirinsky, D. (1996). Growing into leadership:Profiles from a "good" department. English Journal, 85, 34-39. Schutte, R. C. & Hopkins, B. L. (1970). The effects of teacherattention on following instructions in a kindergarten kindergarten[Ger.,=garden of children], system of preschool education. Friedrich Froebel designed (1837) the kindergarten to provide an educational situation less formal than that of the elementary school but one in which children's creative play instincts would be class. Journal ofApplied Behavior Analysis, 3, 117-122. Stone, C. A. (1998). Moving validated instructional practices intothe classroom: Learning from examples about the rough road to success.Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 12, 177-187. Strain, P. S., Lambert, D. L., Kerr, M. M., Stagg, V., &Lenkner, D. A. (1983). Naturalistic nat��u��ral��is��tic?adj.1. Imitating or producing the effect or appearance of nature.2. Of or in accordance with the doctrines of naturalism. assessment of children'scompliance to teachers' requests and consequences for compliance.Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 16, 243-249 Swanson, L. H., & Hoskyn, M. (1998). Experimental interventionresearch on students with learning disabilities: A meta-analysis oftreatment outcomes. Review of Educational Research, 68, 277-321. Wehby, J. H., Symons, F. J., Canale, J. A., & Go, F. J. (1998).Teaching practices in classrooms for students with emotional andbehavioral disorders: Discrepancies between recommendations andobservations. Behavioral Disorders, 24, 51-56. Williams, B. F., Williams, R. L., & McLaughlin, T. F. (1991).Classroom procedures for remediating behavior disorders. Journal ofDevelopmental and Physical Disabilities, 3, 349-384. Timothy J. Landrum University of Virginia Bryan G. Cook University of Hawaii (body, education) University of Hawaii - A University spread over 10 campuses on 4 islands throughout the state.http://hawaii.edu/uhinfo.html.See also Aloha, Aloha Net. Melody Tankersley Shawn Fitzgerald Kent State University Correspondence to Timothy J. Landrum, Department of Curriculum,Instruction, and Special Education, Curry School of Education The Curry School of Education is a public school of education in the U.S. Located on the campus of the University of Virginia in Charlottesville, the Curry School offers professional programs designed to prepare individuals for a variety of careers related to the practice of ,University of Virginia, 405 Emmet Street South, Charlottesville, VA22904-4272; e-mail: TimL@virginia.edu.Table 1 Experience and Teaching Certification of Participants General Education Special Education Teachers (n = 67) Teachers (n = 60)Measure Mean (SD) Mean (SD)Total years of teaching 8.01 (6.94) 6.82 (7.45) experienceYears of experience teaching 8.01 (6.94) 2.75 (5.68) in general educationYears of experience teaching NA 4.07 (4.79) in special educationGeneral education n = 62 (92.5%) n = 36 (60.0%) certificationSpecial education n = 3 (4.5%) n = 43 (71.7%) certificationNA = not applicable; due to the way that teachers were categorized,general educators had no special education teaching experience bydefinitionTable 2 Excerpts from data-based and personal formats of surveyinstrumentData-based format Personal formatOver the past ten years, research I have taught in the same has yielded several strategies elementary school for ten years that have been shown to help poor now, and in my classroom, we have readers, and even non-readers, at used the following strategies to the elementary level acquire the help poor readers, and even non- basic skills they need to succeed readers, acquire the basic skills in school. they need to succeed in school.The use of word banks is supported I have used word banks successfully by over a dozen studies in the with over 100 students during the last decade using over 100 past ten years. students (see reviews by Lankton, 1994; Smith, 1995). (a)Research on students who are For each student who is reading reading below grade level below grade level, we work on suggests that work on blending blending skills at least three skills may be important to their times a week, for at least 20 reading success (Kaplan, 1992). minutes per session.Research suggests that the simple We have found that these simple strategies described here can strategies have had a profound have a profound impact on poor impact on our poor readers. We readers. In some cases, students have seen students go from non- have progressed from non-reader reader to grade-level reader in to grade-level reader in one one years' time. Even more years' time (e.g., Johnson et important, we believe that these al., 1990). Even more important, students will now find success in these students are now more all their academic work. likely to find success in all their academic work (Davis, 1991).(a) references in vignettes are fictitiousTable 3 Means and Standard Deviations of Ratings of the Useability ofInformation General educators Special educatorsData-based Personal format Data-based format Personal formatformat (n = 31) (n = 36) (n = 30) (n = 30)Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD)3.08 (0.56) 3.36 (0.56) 3.32 (0.60) 3.46 (0.53)