Teacher expectations of student behavior: which skills do elementary and secondary teachers deem necessary for success in the classroom?

Teacher expectations of student behavior: which skills do elementary and secondary teachers deem necessary for success in the classroom? Abstract This study examined teachers' expectations of studentbehaviors that teachers deem important for school success with attentionto identifying how expectations converge con��verge?v. con��verged, con��verg��ing, con��verg��esv.intr.1. a. To tend toward or approach an intersecting point: lines that converge.b. and diverge diverge - If a series of approximations to some value get progressively further from it then the series is said to diverge.The reduction of some term under some evaluation strategy diverges if it does not reach a normal form after a finite number of reductions. according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. gradelevel taught and program type. Teachers (n = 366) of kindergarten kindergarten[Ger.,=garden of children], system of preschool education. Friedrich Froebel designed (1837) the kindergarten to provide an educational situation less formal than that of the elementary school but one in which children's creative play instincts would be through twelfth-grade students rated which of 30 social skills theyviewed to be essential for school success. Results suggest that allteachers viewed cooperation and self-control skills as significantlymore important than assertion skills. Five skills, all of whichconstituted the cooperation and self-control domains, were rated by themajority of elementary, middle, and high school teachers as critical forsuccess. Middle school teachers appeared to be the most homogeneous The same. Contrast with heterogeneous. homogeneous - (Or "homogenous") Of uniform nature, similar in kind.1. In the context of distributed systems, middleware makes heterogeneous systems appear as a homogeneous entity. For example see: interoperable network. intheir expectations. General education teachers, in comparison to specialeducation teachers, viewed assertion and cooperation skills as morecritical for school success. Whereas general and special educationelementary and middle school teachers held similar views about theimportance of self-control, high school special education teachersviewed self-control as significantly less important than did high schoolgeneral education teachers. Implications for improving prereferralinterventions, transition across the grade level, and inclusiveexperiences for students receiving special education services arepresented. ********** From house keeping and literacy centers in kindergarten classroomsto advanced placement English classes, students are expected toparticipate in these environments with certain social and behavioral behavioralpertaining to behavior.behavioral disorderssee vice.behavioral seizuresee psychomotor seizure. competencies. Many teachers expect students to listen attentively,follow directions, produce correct school work, and control their temper tem��pern.1. A state of mind or emotions; mood.2. A tendency to become easily angry or irritable.3. An outburst of rage. in conflict situations (Hersh & Walker, 1983; Kerr & Zigmond,1984). Research regarding teacher expectations also suggests that it isparticularly important for students to demonstrate competence in theareas of cooperation and self-control skills (Gresham, Dolstra, Lambros,McLaughlin, & Lane, 2000; Lane, Givner, & Pierson, in press).Students who lack these skills are unlikely to meet their teachers'behavioral expectations and are at-risk for pejorative pejorativeMedtalk Bad…real bad outcomesincluding poor school adjustment in the form of impaired relationshipswith teachers and peers, academic underachievement, high rates ofdisciplinary contacts (Coie & Jacobs, 1993; O'Shaughnessy,Lane, Gresham, & Beebe-Frankenberger, 2002; Walker, Colvin, &Ramsey, 1995; Walker, Irvin, Noell, & Singer, 1992; Walker &Severson, 2002). In more extreme cases, students who fail tosuccessfully negotiate the behavioral expectations set by their teachersmay be referred to the prereferral intervention A procedure used in a lawsuit by which the court allows a third person who was not originally a party to the suit to become a party, by joining with either the plaintiff or the defendant. process to acquireinterventions to help them better perform in the general educationsetting (Chalfant & Pysh, 1989; Fuchs et al., 1990; Lane, Mahdavi,& Borthwick-Duffy, in press). If these interventions proveineffective, these students may be referred for special educationaleligibility determination to determine if a more intensive,individualized in��di��vid��u��al��ize?tr.v. in��di��vid��u��al��ized, in��di��vid��u��al��iz��ing, in��di��vid��u��al��iz��es1. To give individuality to.2. To consider or treat individually; particularize.3. educational program is warranted (Lane, Mahdavi et al.,in press). Unfortunately, it is possible that teachers' social andbehavioral expectations may be unclear to the students. If expectationsare unclear, either because the skills are not explicitly taught or notconsistently enforced, it is difficult for students to meet theseexpectations in their current classrooms (Colvin, 2002). Further, ifstudents are not aware of variations in teacher expectations acrossclassrooms, grade levels, and educational settings, transitions becomemore difficult (Lane, Pierson, & Givner, 2002). Due to the trendtowards inclusive programming (Fuchs & Fuchs, 1994; MacMillan,Gresham, & Forness, 1996), students receiving special educationservices may also be further challenged given that they mustsuccessfully negotiate the demands of general and special educationteachers. Thus, knowledge of teacher expectations has importantimplications for general and special education students alike as itrelates to transitioning across the grade levels, negotiating thevarious expectations of a variety of teachers at the secondary level,improving the focus and efficacy of interventions generated by theprereferral intervention teams, and promoting responsible, successfulinclusive experiences for students receiving special education services(Lane, Givner et al., in press; Lane et al., 2002). Early investigations pertaining per��tain?intr.v. per��tained, per��tain��ing, per��tains1. To have reference; relate: evidence that pertains to the accident.2. to teacher expectations by Walkerand colleagues led to the development of the Model of Interpersonal in��ter��per��son��al?adj.1. Of or relating to the interactions between individuals: interpersonal skills.2. Social-Behavioral Competence with School Settings (Hersh & Walker,1983; Walker et al., 1992). This model delineates teacher-preferred andpeer-preferred behaviors that are associated with positive and negativeschool-outcomes. More specifically, this model identified behaviors(e.g., follows rules, controls anger, responds to teacher correction)that are likely to lead to adaptive relationships with teachers andpeers such as teacher acceptance, friendships, and academic success.Further, the model specifies behaviors (e.g., disturbs others, ignoresteacher, disrupts the group) that are likely to lead to maladaptive MaladaptiveUnsuitable or counterproductive; for example, maladaptive behavior is behavior that is inappropriate to a given situation.Mentioned in: Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy relationships with teachers and peers such as social rejection, lowsocial engagement, and referral for specialized spe��cial��ize?v. spe��cial��ized, spe��cial��iz��ing, spe��cial��iz��esv.intr.1. To pursue a special activity, occupation, or field of study.2. placements (Walker etal., 1992). These empirically-derived behavioral correlates wereeffective in distinguishing between students with and without behaviordisorders as well as between students with rejected and nonrejectedsociometric statuses (Coie, Dodge, & Coppotelli, 1982; Walker &McConnell, 1988). While Walker and colleagues were studying teacher expectations ofelementary students, Kerr and Zigmond (1986) focused on teachers'expectations at the high school level. Kerr and Zigmond administered theSocial Behavioral Survival Inventory of Teacher Social Behavior In biology, psychology and sociology social behavior is behavior directed towards, or taking place between, members of the same species. Behavior such as predation which involves members of different species is not social. Standards and Expectations (SBS See Small Business Server. ; Walker & Rankin, 1980) survey to220 general and 24 special education urban high school teachers.Findings suggest that teachers as a whole emphasized the importance ofself-control, compliance, and strong study habits and placed lessemphasis on the value of peer social interaction skills. Theseexpectations were relatively consistent between general and specialeducation teachers; however, general education teachers held higherexpectations in deportment de��port��ment?n.A manner of personal conduct; behavior. See Synonyms at behavior.deportmentNounthe way in which a person moves and stands: . More recent investigations of teacher expectations of studentbehavior have confirmed and extended these findings. In a study of upperelementary teachers, Gresham and colleagues (2000) found that teachersviewed competence in the areas of self-control and cooperation assignificantly more important than assertion skills. In addition, teacherexpectations shifted between fourth and sixth grade, with sixth gradeteachers viewing more skills as essential for success. However, becauseonly minimal information on the responding teachers'characteristics (e.g., teaching experience, teaching assignment, gender)was obtained, it was not possible to determine specific teachercharacteristics predictive of the importance placed on cooperation,self-control, and assertion skills. Lane and colleagues extended the work on elementary (in press) andsecondary (2002) teachers' expectations by surveying teachers usinga portion of the Social Skills Rating System (Gresham & Elliott,1990) in addition to collecting additional demographic information onteacher characteristics. One hundred and twenty-six elementary teachers(grades kindergarten through sixth grade) reported that cooperation andself-control skills were rated of equal importance for school successand both were rated significantly less important than assertion skills.These findings, which paralleled the findings of Gresham et al.'s(2000) work, were consistent across primary (kindergarten through thirdgrade) and intermediate (fourth through sixth grade) teachers. Althoughgeneral and special education teachers shared perceptions about theimportance of self-control and assertion skills, general educationteachers rated cooperation skills as significantly more important ascompared to special education teachers. In a second study of middle and high school teachers, Lane andcolleagues (2002) surveyed 240 secondary teachers using the secondaryversion of the Social Skills Rating System (SSRS SSRS SQL Server Reporting Services (Microsoft SQL Server 2005)SSRS Single State Registration SystemSSRS Social Skills Rating SystemSSRS SQL Server Resolution Service (Microsoft SQL Server 2000); Gresham & Elliott,1990) along with the same demographic information requested in theelementary study. Findings suggest that whereas middle and high schoolteachers hold similar expectations regarding the importance ofcooperation and self-control skills, middle schools view assertionskills as significantly more important than do high school teachers.Results also revealed that secondary level (middle vs. high school) andprogram type (general vs. special education) were predictive of thevalue placed on assertion skills. These variables, in addition tocredentialing Credentialing is the administrative process for validating the qualifications of licensed professionals, organizational members or organizations, and assessing their background and legitimacy. status, were also predictive of teachers' ratingsabout the importance of cooperation skills. Thus, in terms of global levels of competence, general and specialeducation teacher expectations appear to be rather similar. Yet, todate, studies have not examined the specific skills deemed essential forsuccess over the kindergarten through twelfth grade This article or section deals primarily with the United States and Canada and does not represent a worldwide view of the subject.Please [ improve this article] or discuss the issue on the talk page. span. Nor hasresearch examined differences between general and special educationteachers across the age span. Given that teachers are charged with theformidable task of educating an increasingly diverse study population ininclusive environments while asked to meet state and federally mandatesfor increased accountability (e.g., Leave No Child Behind Act of 2001,Fournier, AP), administrators, teachers, school psychologists This list includes notable psychologists and contributors to psychology, some of whom may not have thought of themselves primarily as psychologists but are included here because of their important contributions to the discipline. , andsupport staff alike are under enormous pressure to develop and maintaineffective, efficient instructional environments (Lane &BeebeFrankenberger, in press). In order for general and specialeducation teachers to meet this charge, it is necessary for alleducators and students to have a clear, comprehensive understanding ofthe social and behavioral expectations required of students as theytransition within and across the grade span. This information has theability to (a) improve interventions generated by the prereferralintervention and special education teams by improving goal alignment andteacher expectations (Sulzer-Azaroff & Mayer, 1991), (b) encouragemore successful inclusive experiences for students receiving specialeducation services by helping teachers and students to be aware ofpotential differences in expectations held by the general and specialeducation teachers (Lane et al., in press), and (c) promote successfultransitions across the grade span by providing teachers and studentsalike with information about where teachers converge and diverge intheir social and behavioral expectations (Alspaugh, 1998; Lane et al.,in review; Morrison, Robertson, Laurie, & Kelly, 2002). The intent of this study is to identify student behaviors thatteachers, kindergarten through twelfth grade, view as important forsuccess in their classrooms. Specifically, the following questions willbe addressed: (a) To what extent do teachers view student competence inthe areas of assertion, self control, and cooperation as essential forschool success? (b) Which social skills do teachers view as pivotal forsuccess in their classrooms? (c)What are the effects of grade leveltaught (elementary vs. middle vs. high school) and program type (generalvs. special education) on teachers' perspectives about theimportance of self-control, cooperation, and assertion skills? and (d)Which teacher characteristics are most predictive of teachers who do anddo not rate assertion, self-control, and cooperation as critical forschool success? Method Participants Participants included 366 teachers representing 8 schools (4elementary, 2 middle, and 2 high) in 2 districts in southern California.34.43% (n = 126) of the teachers taught at the elementary level(kindergarten through sixth-grade), 24.32% (n = 89) taught at the middleschool level (seventh and eighth-grade), and 41.26% (n = 151) taught atthe high school level (ninth through twelfth- grade). 83.29% (n = 304)of the sample were general educators, 13.15% (n = 48) were specialeducators (e.g., resource and special day class teachers), and 3.56% (n= 13) classified themselves as "other" (e.g., readingspecialists). 68.77% (n = 251) of the teachers were credentialed cre��den��tial?n.1. That which entitles one to confidence, credit, or authority.2. credentials Evidence or testimonials concerning one's right to credit, confidence, or authority: and31.23% (n = 114) held either emergency or substitute credentials CREDENTIALS, international law. The instruments which authorize and establish a public minister in his character with the state or prince to whom they are addressed. If the state or prince receive the minister, he can be received only in the quality attributed to him in his credentials. .Teaching experience ranged from 1 to 44 years (M = 8.61, SD - 8.04).28.69% (n = 103) of the sample were male and 71.31% (n = 256) werefemale. Seven teachers omitted their gender. Procedures Three relatively small districts in Southern California wereinvited to participate in this study. Two of the three districtsconsented; however, one district declined due to concerns aboutteachers' existing work loads and other time commitments. Fourelementary, two middle, and two high schools were then randomly selectedfrom the remaining districts and then asked to participate in thisinvestigation by completing a brief, anonymous questionnaire focused onteacher expectations of student behaviors (See Lane, Givner, et al., inpress for elementary and Lane et al., 2002 for secondary outcomes. Datapresented in this study are collapsed from these studies.) The second author sought teacher participation by explaining theintent of the study at faculty meetings and distributing an introductoryletter. Teachers who consented to participate immediately completed thequestionnaire during the meeting. In order to ensure anonymity,completed questionnaires were collected using a sealed box with slot inthe top. Response rates were quite high ranging from 71.11% to 97.82%across the 8 schools (M = 88.37; SD = 9.25). Each questionnaire was assigned a unique identification number.Data were entered by a research associate with a masters' degree inspecial education. Integrity of data entry was assessed by having amasters level student randomly select and verify (1) To prove the correctness of data.(2) In data entry operations, to compare the keystrokes of a second operator with the data entered by the first operator to ensure that the data were typed in accurately. See validate. 25% (n = 92) of thequestionnaires. Four data entry errors were detected and corrected. Instrumentation instrumentation,in music: see orchestra and orchestration. instrumentationIn technology, the development and use of precise measuring, analysis, and control equipment. The questionnaire contained two sections: social skills items anddemographic information. First, teachers read a list of 30 social skillsitems from the Social Skills Rating System (SSRS; Gresham & Elliott,1990). The social skills subscale of the SSRS contains a list of 30social skills that are typically rated in terms of frequency andimportance on separate 3 point Likert-type scales ranging from 0 to 3.The frequency items constitute three factor analytically an��a��lyt��ic? or an��a��lyt��i��caladj.1. Of or relating to analysis or analytics.2. Dividing into elemental parts or basic principles.3. derivedsubdomains each comprised of 10 items: assertion (e.g., invites othersto join in activities, appropriately questions rules that may beunfair), self-control (e.g., receives criticism well, respondsappropriately to peer pressure), and cooperation (e.g., ignores peersdistractions when doing class work, finishes class assignments withintime limits). For purposes of this study, the teachers rated only theimportance of each item. Thus, teachers rated the relative importance ofeach skill (ranging from not important = 0, to important = 1, tocritical = 3) for students to succeed in their classrooms. The SSRS has strong psychometric psy��cho��met��rics?n. (used with a sing. verb)The branch of psychology that deals with the design, administration, and interpretation of quantitative tests for the measurement of psychological variables such as intelligence, aptitude, and properties with total scalecoefficient coefficient/co��ef��fi��cient/ (ko?ah-fish��int)1. an expression of the change or effect produced by variation in certain factors, or of the ratio between two different quantities.2. alphas reliabilities of 0.94 for males and 0.93 for females.Coefficient alpha reliabilities were also excellent at the subscalelevel as evident by the following reliabilities: assertion, 0.85 formales, 0.87 for females; self control, 0.92 for males, 0.89 for females;and cooperation, 0.91 for males, 0.91 for females. Next, teachers provided demographic information such as gender,grade level taught, program type (e.g., general or special education)currently taught, years of teaching experience, and credentialscurrently held. Limited demographic information was requested in orderto protect teacher anonymity and promote high response rates. Statistical Analyses Descriptive statistics descriptive statisticssee statistics. , including means, frequencies, andcorrelations, were employed to determine the degree to which teachersviewed student competence in the areas of assertion, self-control, andcooperation as behaviors essential for school success and to identifywhich specific skills were rated as most important by the majority ofthe teachers. A one-way repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA anovasee analysis of variance.ANOVAAnalysis of variance, see there )was used to determine if the mean assertion scores were significantlydifferent from self-control and cooperation means scores for the sampleas a whole. Effect sizes were calculated using a pooled standarddeviation Pooled standard deviation is a way to find a better estimate of the true standard deviation given several different samples taken in different circumstances where the mean may vary between samples but the true standard deviation (precision) is assumed to remain the same. in the denominator denominatorthe bottom line of a fraction; the base population on which population rates such as birth and death rates are calculated.denominator(Busk busk?intr.v. busked, busk��ing, busksTo play music or perform entertainment in a public place, usually while soliciting money. & Serlin, 1992) to determine themagnitude of the differences between scores. Three two-way fixed-effects analyses of variance (ANOVAs) wereexecuted using the general linear model to compare differences inteachers' expectations. Specifically, grade level taught(elementary vs. middle vs. high school) and program type (general vs.special education) were fixed-effects factors. Assertion, self-control,and cooperation aggregate scores served as dependent variables. ANOVAswere corrected for Type I error rate using the Bonferonni correctiongiven that multiple ANOVAs were computed. Significant ANOVAS werefollowed by mean score comparisons. When more than two subgroups werecompared (e.g., grade level taught), the Tukey HSD HSD Human Services DepartmentHSD High Speed DataHSD Hillsboro School District (Hillsboro, OR)HSD Hybrid Synergy Drive (Toyota/Lexus)HSD High School DiplomaHSD Historical Society of Delaware comparison procedurewas employed. When only two groups were compared (e.g., program type),multiple comparisons were not necessary (Glass & Hopkins, 1996; Huck huck?n.Huckaback.Noun 1. huck - toweling consisting of coarse absorbent cotton or linen fabrichuckabacktoweling, towelling - any of various fabrics (linen or cotton) used to make towels & McLean, 1975). A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA MANOVA Multivariate Analysis of the Variance ) wasnot conducted given that the three dependent variables were notmoderately correlated cor��re��late?v. cor��re��lat��ed, cor��re��lat��ing, cor��re��latesv.tr.1. To put or bring into causal, complementary, parallel, or reciprocal relation.2. (Kleinbaum, Kupper, Muller, & Nizam, 1998). Finally, three stepwise stepwiseincremental; additional information is added at each step.stepwise multiple regressionused when a large number of possible explanatory variables are available and there is difficulty interpreting the partial regression regressions were conducted to determine theextent to which teacher characteristics (e.g., years of teachingexperience, credentialing status, program type, grade level taught, andgender) could predict the importance teachers place on assertion,self-control, and cooperation skills. A jackknife jack��knife?n.1. A large clasp knife.2. Sports A dive in the pike position, in which the diver straightens out to enter the water hands first.v. procedure was used toexamine extreme residual values (Kleinbaum et al., 1998). The Cpcriterion, residual sums of squares, and the multiple correlationcoefficient Correlation CoefficientA measure that determines the degree to which two variable's movements are associated.The correlation coefficient is calculated as: values were used to identify the most parsimonious par��si��mo��ni��ous?adj.Excessively sparing or frugal.parsi��mo model(BorthwickDuffy, Lane, & Widaman, 1996). Results Importance of Assertion, Self-control, and Cooperation Visual inspection of mean score totals indicated that teachers, asa whole, rated assertion skills (M = 8.72, SD = 3.92) as less essentialfor success in school relative to self-control (M=14.23, SD = 3.86) andcooperation skills (M = 13.96, SD = 3.43; see Figure 1). Results wereanalyzed an��a��lyze?tr.v. an��a��lyzed, an��a��lyz��ing, an��a��lyz��es1. To examine methodically by separating into parts and studying their interrelations.2. Chemistry To make a chemical analysis of.3. using a one-way ANOVA, repeated measures design. This analysisrevealed a significant differences between the means, F (2, 730) =396.54; p <.0001 with a Greenhouse Geisser epsilon value of 0.94(Hatcher hatch?1?n.1. a. An opening, as in the deck of a ship, in the roof or floor of a building, or in an aircraft.b. The cover for such an opening.c. A hatchway.d. & Stepanski, 1994; Klienbaum et al., 1998). Contrast showedthat assertion scores were significantly lower than self-control F (1,365) = 542.01; p < .0001 scores (effect size = 1.42) and cooperationF (1, 365) = 513.89; p < .0001 (effect size 1.43). This pattern wasconsistent across elementary, middle, and secondary teachers. It isinteresting to note that teachers rated self control and cooperationskills as equally important for school success (effect size = 0.07). [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] Social Skills Essential for Success Findings indicated that the majority (greater than 50%) ofelementary teachers rated 7 skills as critical for success in theirclassrooms (see Table 2). Middle school teachers viewed 6 skills asessential for success where as high school teachers identified 8 socialskills as germaine. Five skills: (a) follows directions, (b) attends toyour instructions, (c) controls temper in conflict situation with peers,(d) controls conflict situation with adults, and (e) respondsappropriately to physical aggression from peers, were rated as essentialfor classroom success by teachers representing all three school levels.It is interesting to note, however, that the percentage of high schoolteachers rating these 5 skills as important was less than the percentageof middle school teachers who rated the skills as important. With oneexception (follows directions), middle school teachers placed a higherimportance on these skills relative to elementary school elementary school:see school. teachers aswell. Particularly noteworthy is the fact that, regardless of schoolgrade level taught, teachers did not view competence in any assertionskill as vital to school success. Differences in Behavioral Expectations Assertion. Findings of a two-way ANOVA with two between-groupsfactors (grade level taught and program type) revealed that the gradelevel taught X program type interaction was not significant, F (1,346) =0.80, p = .45. The main effect of grade level taught was significant, F(2, 346) = 6.71, p = .001. Tukey HSD comparisons revealed thatelementary and middle school teachers rated assertion skills assignificantly more important that did high school teachers. There wereno significant differences between elementary and middle schoolteachers' ratings suggesting that they shared similar views on theimportance of assertion skills. The main effect of program type was alsosignificant, F (1, 346) = 5.24, p = .02 indicating that generaleducation teachers, in comparison to special education teachers, viewedassertion skills as more critical for school success (see Table 3 forgroup means). Cooperation. Results of the two-way ANOVA with two between-groupsfactors (grade level taught and program type) showed that the gradelevel taught X program type interaction was not significant, F (1, 346)= 0.69, p = .50. The main effect of grade level taught was notsignificant, F (2, 346) = 1.83, p =. 16, suggesting that elementary,middle, and high school teachers placed similar importance oncooperation skills. The main effect of program type was significant, F(1, 346) = 19.78, p = .0001 suggesting that general education teachersrated cooperation skills as significantly more important for success ascompared to special education teachers. Self-control. Results of two-way ANOVA with two between-groupsfactors (grade level taught and program type) with self-control as thedependent variable revealed a significant grade level taught X programtype interaction, F (1, 346) = 4.48, p =.01. A simple effect for programtype for elementary teachers approached significance, F (1,121) = 3.66,p = .06. General and special education elementary teachers held similaropinions about the necessity of self-control skills. A simple effect forprogram type for middle school teachers was not significant, F (1, 80) =1.80, p =. 18, also suggesting that general and special education middleschool teachers shared similar views about the importance of selfcontrol skills. A final simple effect for program type for high schoolteachers was significant, F (1, 145) = 7.99, p = .005, with high schoolspecial education teachers viewing self-control as significantly lesscritical in comparison to high school general education teachers. Teacher Characteristics as Predictors of Behavioral Expectations Assertion. Grade level taught and program type were significant inpredicting the importance teachers placed on assertion skills (see Table4 form means scores). Grade level taught accounted for 4% of variance inassertion, F (1,337) = 14.61, p < .000 1; and the variable, programtype accounted for only 1% of the variance in assertion, F (1,337) =4.48, p < .05. The negative regression regression,in psychology: see defense mechanism. regressionIn statistics, a process for determining a line or curve that best represents the general trend of a data set. weight for the predictorvariable Noun 1. predictor variable - a variable that can be used to predict the value of another variable (as in statistical regression)variable quantity, variable - a quantity that can assume any of a set of values , grade level taught predictor, B = - 0.95, suggests a negativerelationship. Namely, teachers who taught younger students appeared toview assertion skills as more essential for school success relative toteachers who taught older students (see Table 5). Similarly, thenegative regression weight for the variable, program type, B = - 0.95,suggests that general education teachers rated assertion skills as moreimportant for school success in comparison to special educationteachers. Self-control. The predictor variable, program type, was significantin predicting the value teachers placed on self-control skills,accounting for a nominal amount (1%) of variance; F (1,337) = 5.01, p< .05 (see Table 6). The negative regression weight, B = -1.32,indicates that general educators, in comparison to special educators,rated self-control skills as more essential for school success. Cooperation. The only significant predictor of cooperation skillswas program type, accounting for 5% of the variance; F (1,337) = 19.32,p < .000 1 (see Table 7). Here again, the negative regression weight,B = -2.31, suggests that general education teachers viewed cooperationskills as more necessary for school success in comparison to specialeducators. Results of these three stepwise regression In statistics, stepwise regression includes regression models in which the choice of predictive variables is carried out by an automatic procedure.[1][2][3] procedures did notproduce extreme values thus indicating an absence of outliers. As such,the regression results were deemed to be accurate. Discussion Students enter the school house doors with a wide range of socialand behavioral competencies (O'Shaughnessy et al., 2002; Lane,Givner et al., in press; Lane & Wehby, 2002; Walker et al., 1995).Students whose social and behavioral repertoires are aligned withteacher expectations are more likely to experience desirable outcomeswith both peers and adults. Those whose repertoires lack the skillsteachers view as critical are at-risk for pejorative outcomes within andbeyond the school setting (Walker et al., 1992). Knowledge of teacher expectations has the potential tosignificantly influence general and special education studentstransitioning into various settings, particularly at the secondarylevel. Knowledge of teacher expectations also has the potential topositively influence the focus and efficacy of interventions generatedby the prereferral intervention and special education multidisciplinaryteams. Finally, knowledge of teacher expectations has the potential topromote responsible, successful inclusive experiences for studentsreceiving special education services (Lane, Givner et al., in press;Lane et al., 2002). Thus, it is important that teachers be clear intheir behavioral expectations for student performance and cognizant cog��ni��zant?adj.Fully informed; conscious. See Synonyms at aware.[From cognizance.]Adj. 1. ofhow their expectations converge and diverge with other teachers.Further, it is also imperative that these expectations be explicitlytaught to students. Studies conducted to date have provided important insight regardingthose skills that teachers view as critical and intolerable at both theelementary and secondary levels (Gresham et al., 2000; Hersh &Walker, 1983; Kerr & Zigmond, 1986; Walker et al., 1992). Yet,studies have neither (a) identified the individual skills viewed aspertinent PERTINENT, evidence. Those facts which tend to prove the allegations of the party offering them, are called pertinent; those which have no such tendency are called impertinent, 8 Toull. n. 22. By pertinent is also meant that which belongs. Willes, 319. for success by teachers over the kindergarten throughtwelfth-grade span nor (b) examined differences between general andspecial education teachers across the age span. This study extendedearlier works by examining teacher expectations of student behavioracross the kindergarten through twelfth-grade age span. Results revealed that teachers as a whole rated assertion skills assignificantly less essential for success in school relative toself-control and cooperation skills which were rated as equallyimportant for school success. These findings confirm the outcomes ofearlier investigations of teacher expectations (Gresham et al., 2000;Kerr & Zigmond, 1986). Descriptive analyses of specific socialskills items indicated that elementary, middle, and high school teachershad relatively similar expectations of student behavior, with themajority (greater than 5 0%) of teachers in each level rating 5 skills(attends to your instructions, controls temper in conflict situationwith peers, controls conflict situation with adults, follows directions,and responds appropriately to physical aggression from peers) asessential for success. The first three skills were also identified asgermane by Kerr and Zigmond (1986) and Walker and colleagues (1992). Middle school teachers identified the fewest numbers of socialskills as critical for success as compared to elementary and secondaryteachers; however, middle school teachers were the most homogeneous intheir expectations. Thus, it would appear that while skills in the areaof cooperation and self-control are viewed as necessary by teachersacross the kindergarten through twelfth-grade span; these skills areviewed as more necessary from middle school teachers' perspectives.Nonetheless, although elementary and middle school teachers ratedassertion skills, as a whole, as significantly more important forsuccess in comparison to high school teachers, none of the individualassertion items were rated as essential for success by either elementaryor middle school teachers. Elementary, middle, and high school teachersplaced similar importance on cooperation skills. These are skills thatcan, and should, be taught explicitly upon initial school entry as theseskills are deemed important for success by teachers across thekindergarten through twelfth-grade span. By clarifying theseexpectations for students, it is possible to improve transitionexperiences across the grades. This is particularly important forstudents transitioning into high school from middle school, a mostchallenging task for general and special education students alike(Alspaugh, 1998; Lane et al., 2002; Morrison et al., 2002). General education teachers, in comparison to special educationteachers, viewed assertion and cooperation skills as more critical forschool success. Perhaps general education teachers rate these skills asmore essential given that general education teachers are charged withthe formidable task of teaching a more differentiated curriculum tolarge numbers of increasingly diverse students in an effort toultimately prepare them for post-secondary experiences. In order to movethrough the curriculum efficiently and effectively, general educationteachers may feel that students need to demonstrate strong cooperationskills and use assertion skills to make their needs known in anappropriate manner that will not impede im��pede?tr.v. im��ped��ed, im��ped��ing, im��pedesTo retard or obstruct the progress of. See Synonyms at hinder1.[Latin imped instruction (Colvin, 2002). Yet,regardless of the reason for these different expectations betweengeneral and special education teachers, this finding could prove usefulin improving inclusive experiences for students with exceptionalities(Lane, Givner et al., in press; Lane et al., 2002). Moreover, ifstudents receiving special education services could be informed of thesedifferences and acquisition deficits addressed (Elliott & Gresham,1991) prior to placing students in inclusive experiences, it is possiblethat students receiving services in inclusive environments could bettermeet their general education teachers' expectations. Whereas general and special education elementary and middle schoolteachers held similar views about the importance of self-control, highschool special education teachers viewed self-control as significantlyless important as compared to high school general education teachers.The emphasis general education teachers place on self-control at thehigh school level may in part be due the fact that (a) general educationteachers are required to manage larger numbers of students as comparedto special education teachers and (b) the consequences of aggression atthe high school level are potentially more damaging than in earlieryears as students become physically larger and stronger. An absence ofself-control skills on the part of high school students may beparticularly problematic for general education teachers who, due tocurricular demands, do not have instructional time to teachproblem-solving, anger management, and social skills (Gresham, 2002;Walker et al., 1995) to promote self-control. Findings also suggests that a teacher's program perspective(e.g., general versus special education) significantly predicted theimportance teachers place assertion, cooperation, self-control skillswith general education teachers rating these skills as more essentialfor school success relative to special education teachers. In addition,grade level taught was also predictive of assertion skills. It issurprising that no other teacher characteristics variables werepredictive of the value placed on these skill areas as was the case inseperate investigations elementary (Lane, Givner et al., in press) andsecondary (Lane et al., 2002) teachers in isolation. Limitations and Future Directions Although the findings have the potential to inform interventionsdesigned by prereferral and special education teams, promote successfulinclusive experiences, and facilitate transitions across the grade span,this study is not without limitations. First, this study containsteacher report data that is not confirmed by direct observations orother more direct procedures. It is possible that the expectations ratedas critical by the teachers in this investigation are not the sameskills that receive reinforcement reinforcement/re��in��force��ment/ (-in-fors��ment) in behavioral science, the presentation of a stimulus following a response that increases the frequency of subsequent responses, whether positive to desirable events, or in educational settings. Second, it ispossible that expectations are individualized. Namely, it is possiblethat teacher expectations are not global in nature (Gresham et al.,2002; Lane et al., 2002). Perhaps teachers adjust their expectations ofstudents based on perceived cognitive abilities, behavioral performance,academic performance, or student gender. Third, while this study looksat teachers expectations across the age span, it does not examineteacher expectations within a given instructional area. For example, itis possible that there is additional variability within high schoolteachers' expectations. It may be that expectations are differentfor different content area teachers. Perhaps advanced placement Englishteachers English Teachers (airing internationally as Taipei Diaries) is a Canadian documentary television series. The series, which airs on Canada's Life Network and internationally, profiles several young Canadians teaching English as a Second Language in Taipei, Taiwan. view more skills as essential for success as compared to musicteachers. Future investigations could be enhanced by identifying additionalvari ables that may be predictive of teacher expectations and thenbuilding more comprehensive models to better explain variability inteacher expectations. Further, studies requesting teachers to identifyteacher expectations for actual students, rather than students ingeneral, and then collecting direct observation data to determine theextent to which these desired skills are actually reinforced couldprovide addition insight into teacher expectations. Nonetheless, this study provides an initial glimpse as to theconsistency of teacher expectation across the age span. In addition,information regarding differences in general and special educationteachers working in elementary, middle, and high school settings, isreported. In sum, this study extends the scope and methodology ofearlier investigations (Kerr & Zigmond, 1986; Walker et al., 1992)and confirms the results of more recent investigations (Gresham et al.,2000; Lane, Givner et al., in press).Table 1Participant CharacteristicsVariable Elementary Middle High Percent n Percent n Percent nGender Male 8.87 11 35.96 32 41.1 60 Female 91.13 113 64.04 57 58.9 86Program type General 83.33 105 76.4 68 87.33 131 Special 14.29 18 15.73 14 10.67 16 Other 2.38 3 7.87 7 2.00 3Credential Status Certificated 73.02 92 73.86 65 61.59 93Substitute/Emergency 26.98 34 26.14 23 38.41 58Teaching Experience Novice 40.48 51 39.33 35 44.37 67 Experienced 59.52 75 60.67 54 55.63 84Variable Total Sample Percent NGender Male 28.69 103 Female 71.31 359Program type General 83.29 304 Special 13.15 48 Other 3.56 13Credential Status Certificated 68.77 250Substitute/Emergency 31.23 115Teaching Experience Novice 41.80 153 Experienced 58.20 213Note. Percent is computed based on the number of participants whocompleted a given item.Table 2Skills Essential for Classroom Success According to Majority ofRespondents School Level Elementary Middle High (n = 126) (n=89) (n=151)Items Domain % (n) % (n) % (n)E8: Uses free time in an Cooperation 54.40acceptable way (68)E30: Gets along with Self-Control 55.20people who are different (69)E25: Responds Self-Control 54.76 62.50 58.67appropriately when (69) (55) (88)pushed or hit by otherchildrenS3: Responds appro- Self-Controlpriately to physicalaggression from peersS8: Responds appro- Self-Control 50.33priately to teasing by (76)peersS11: Receives criticism Self-Control 53.64well (81)E28, S12: Attends to Cooperation 80.16 80.90 65.56your instructions (101) (72) (99)E1, S18: Controls temper Self Control 69.84 78.65 64.24in conflict situation (88) (70) (97)with peersS20: Listens to class- Cooperation 51.69mates when they present (46)their work or ideasE12, S23: Controls Self-Control 65.87 73.86 65.56temper in conflict (83) (65) (99)situations with adultsE20: Follows your Cooperation 83.33 80.90 64.90directions (105) (72) (98)S29: Complies with yourdirectionsS30: Responds appro- Self-Control 51.66priately to peer (78)pressureTable 3Mean Scores: Grade level taught by Program TypeGrade level Program Type Skill Areataught Assertion Cooperation M (SD) M (SD)Elementary General Education (n = 105) 9.73 (3.84) 14.57 (3.28) Special Education (n = 18) 9.39 (3.42) 11.50 (3.68)Middle General Education (n = 68) 9.38 (3.72) 14.68 (2.81) Special Education (n = 14) 7.57 (4.67) 13.14 (2.57)High School General Education (n = 131) 7.97 (3.82) 13.88 (3.76) Special Education (n = 16) 6.00 (4.04) 11.44 (2.85)Grade level Program Type Skill Areataught Self Control M (SD)Elementary General Education (n = 105) 14.41 (3.72) Special Education (n = 18) 12.61 (3.47)Middle General Education (n = 68) 13.90 (3.54) Special Education (n = 14) 15.29 (3.50)High School General Education (n = 131) 14.89 (4.07) Special Education (n = 16) 11.94 (2.74)Table 4Mean Scores by Comparison GroupsGroup Compared Skill Area Assertion Self-Control M (SD) M (SD)Total Sample 8.72 (3.92) 14.23 (3.86) Grade level taught Elementary (K-5) 9.73 (3.78) (a) 14.17 (3.71) (a) Middle School (6-8) 8.87 (3.90) (a) 13.80 (3.76) (a) High School (9-12) 7.78 (3.86) (b) 14.53 (4.03) (a)Program Type General 8.89 (3.88) 14.50 (3.84) Special 7.73 (4.10) 11.96 (3.15)CredentialStatus Certificated 8.60 (3.85) 14.04 (3.87) Substitute/ 8.94 (4.10) 14.64 (3.84) EmergencyExperience Novice (< 5 years) 9.27 (3.70) 14.46 (3.71) Experienced (5+ 8.32 (4.04) 14.06 (3.97) years)Group Compared Skill Area Cooperation M (SD)Total Sample 13.96 (3.43) Grade level taught Elementary (K-5) 14.11 (3.46) (a) Middle School (6-8) 14.37 (2.75) (a) High School (9-12) 13.61 (3.73) (a)Program Type General 14.30 (3.41) Special 13.17 (3.48)CredentialStatus Certificated 13.95 (3.28) Substitute/ 14.64 (3.84) EmergencyExperience Novice (< 5 years) 14.10 (3.52) Experienced (5+ 13.87 (3.36) years)Table 5Summary of Stepwise Regression Analysis Predicting Assertion PartialVariable Beta Weight [R.sup.2] F P1. Grade grade level -0.95 0.04 14.61 <.0001taught2. Program taught -1.28 0.01 4.48 <.05Total Model 0.05 4.28 <.001 ([R.sup.2]) F (1,337)Table 6Sunnnary of Stepwise Regression Analysis Predicting Self-control PartialVariable Beta Weight [R.sup.2] F Pl. Program taught -1.32 0.01 5.01 <.05 Total Model 0.01 5.01 <.05 ([R.sup.2]) F(1,337)Table 7Summary of Stepwise Regression Analysis Predicting Cooperation PartialVariable Beta Weight [R.sup.2] F P1. Program taught -2.31 0.05 19.32 <.0001 Total Model 0.10 19.32 <.0001 ([R.sup.2]) F(1,337) References Alspaugh, J. W. (1988). Achievement loss associated with thetransition to middle school and high school. Journal of EducationalResearch, 92, 20-25. Borthwick-Duffy, S. A., Lane, K.L., & Widaman, K. F. 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(in press). Teacherexpectations of student behavior: Social skills necessary for success inelementary school classrooms. Journal of Special Education. Lane, K. L., Mahdavi, J. N., & Borthwick-Duffy, S. A. (inpress). Teacher perceptions of the prereferral intervention process: Acall for assistance with school-based interventions. Preventing SchoolFailure. Lane, K. L., Pierson, M., & Givner, C. C. (submitted, 2002).Secondary teachers views on social competence: Skills essential forsuccess. Manuscript manuscript,a handwritten work as distinguished from printing. The oldest manuscripts, those found in Egyptian tombs, were written on papyrus; the earliest dates from c.3500 B.C. submitted for publication. Lane, K. L., & Wehby, J. (2002). Addressing antisocial behaviorin the schools: A call for action. Academic Exchange Quarterly, 6, 4-9. MacMillan, D., Gresham, E, & Forness, S. (1996). Fullinclusion: An empirical perspective. Behavioral Disorders, 21, 145-159. Morrison, G. 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A construct score approach to the assessment of socialcompetence: Rationale, technological considerations, and anticipatedoutcomes. Behavior Modification behavior modificationn.1. The use of basic learning techniques, such as conditioning, biofeedback, reinforcement, or aversion therapy, to teach simple skills or alter undesirable behavior.2. See behavior therapy. , 16,448-474. Walker, H. M., & McConnell, S. (1988). The Walker-McConnellScale of Social Competence and School Adjustment. Austin, TX: PRO-ED. Walker, H. M., & Rankin, R. (1980). The SBS inventory ofteacher social behavior standards and expectations. Eugene: Universityof Oregon The University of Oregon is a public university located in Eugene, Oregon. The university was founded in 1876, graduating its first class two years later. The University of Oregon is one of 60 members of the Association of American Universities. . Walker, H. M., & Severson, H. (2002). Developmental preventionof at-risk outcomes for vulnerable antisocial children and youth. InK.L. Lane, F.M. Gresham, & T.E. O'Shaughnessy (Eds.),Interventions for children with or at risk for emotional and behavioraldisorders (pp. 177-194). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Kathleen Lynne Lane Peabody College Peabody College was founded in 1875 when the University of Nashville, located in Nashville,Tennessee, split into two separate educational institutions. The preparatory school, Montgomery Bell Academy separated from the college, which was originally called of Vanderbilt University Vanderbilt University,at Nashville, Tenn.; coeducational; chartered 1872 as Central Univ. of Methodist Episcopal Church, founded and renamed 1873, opened 1875 through a gift from Cornelius Vanderbilt. Until 1914 it operated under the auspices of the Methodist Church. Melinda R. Pierson California State University, Fullerton California State University, Fullerton, commonly known as CSUF, CSU Fullerton, or Cal State Fullerton, is a part of the California State University system. The University is located in the city of Fullerton, California, in northern Orange County. Christine C. Givner California State University, Los Angeles California State University, Los Angeles (also known as Cal State L.A., CSULA, or "'CSLA"') is a public university, part of the California State University system. Address: Dr. Kathleen Lane, Department of Special Education,Peabody College/ Vanderbilt University, Box 328 Peabody, Nashville, TN37203