The origins and dispersal of rice cultivation.

The origins and dispersal of rice cultivation. Domesticated do��mes��ti��cate?tr.v. do��mes��ti��cat��ed, do��mes��ti��cat��ing, do��mes��ti��cates1. To cause to feel comfortable at home; make domestic.2. To adopt or make fit for domestic use or life.3. a. rice (Oryza sativa) is one of the five major crops inthe world and a staple food A staple food is a food that forms the basis of a traditional diet, particularly that of the poor. Staple foods vary from place to place, but are typically inexpensive starchy foods of vegetable origin that are high in food energy (Calories) and carbohydrate and that can be stored for more than 30% of the world population.Yet the question of where, when, why and how the domestication domesticationProcess of hereditary reorganization of wild animals and plants into forms more accommodating to the interests of people. In its strictest sense, it refers to the initial stage of human mastery of wild animals and plants. of riceoriginated has been, and still is, a question under debate. However, asmore archaeological and archaeobotanic discoveries have recently come tolight, the question of the origin of rice cultivation now seems lesselusive than it was a few decades ago. To date, both archaeological andarchaeobotanic discoveries seem to indicate that rice cultivation firstbegan in the middle Yangzi Valley by 8500-8000 years BP, andsubsequently expanded to south China and Southeast Asia. The Yangzi Valley generally refers to the area within longitudesapproximately between 103 [degrees] and 123 [degrees] E, and latitudesbetween 24 [degrees] and 33 [degrees]N The Yangzi Valley is divided intothe upper, the middle and the lower reaches. The upper reach is definedas the western part of longitude 111 [degrees] 19[minutes]E; the middlereach is from 111 [degrees] 20[minutes]E to 116 [degrees] 14[minutes]E,and the eastern end is the lower reach [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 1OMITTED]. Today, the middle and lower Yangzi Valley is a landscape ofalluvial plains with isolated hills and three large lakes. The climateis temperate to subtropical sub��trop��i��cal?adj.Of, relating to, or being the geographic areas adjacent to the Tropics.subtropicalAdjectiveof the region lying between the tropics and temperate lands . The present mean precipitation ranges from1000 to 1600 ram, and mean annual temperature ranges from 14[degrees] to16 [degrees]C (Editing Committee of the Physiography of China 1984). Theflora in this region is a mixture of deciduous deciduous/de��cid��u��ous/ (de-sid��u-us) falling off or shed at maturity, as the teeth of the first dentition. de��cid��u��ousadj.1. and evergreen trees,meadows and woods, as well as cultivated crops, with a subtropicalfauna. However, the climate and environment in the Yangzi Valley duringthe Last Glacial Maximum The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) refers to the time of maximum extent of the ice sheets during the last glaciation (the W��rm or Wisconsin glaciation), approximately 20,000 years ago. This extreme persisted for several thousand years. (LGM LGM Last Glacial MaximumLGM Little Green Men (Astronomical: first used as the designation for pulsars)LGM Lembaga Getah Malaysia (Malay: Malaysian Rubber Board)LGM The Lone Gunmen ) of the terminal Pleistocene differedsignificantly from that of the present. According to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. geomorphological ge��o��mor��phol��o��gy?n.The study of the evolution and configuration of landforms.geo��mor and geological studies, the region was a landscape of high platforms andterraces during the LGM, formed by the down-cutting of the rivers. Aloess horizon called the 'Xiashu loess' widely accumulated inthe region, dated approximately between 20,000 and 13,000 BP (Yang1986). Very meagre mea��geralso mea��gre ?adj.1. Deficient in quantity, fullness, or extent; scanty.2. Deficient in richness, fertility, or vigor; feeble: the meager soil of an eroded plain.3. faunal and floral remains were found in this Xiashuloess. Mineralogical analysis suggests that the Xiashu loess was formedin a cold and dry palaeoclimate (Yang 1986), possibly with precipitationas low as 300-600 mm (Wu et al. 1991). This would have been a decreaseof 7001000 mm from the present. Pollen profiles also reveal that the vegetation between 21,000 and18,000 BP in the middle and lower Yangzi Valley was a mixture ofdeciduous and coniferous con��i��fer?n.Any of various mostly needle-leaved or scale-leaved, chiefly evergreen, cone-bearing gymnospermous trees or shrubs such as pines, spruces, and firs. trees, drought-resistant herbs and ferns (Xu etal. 1987). Oak, pine and fir were major trees, followed by spruce andelm; Artemisia Artemisia, ruler of CariaArtemisia(är'təmĭ`shēə), fl. 4th cent. B.C., ruler of the ancient region of Caria. She was the sister, wife, and successor of Mausolus and erected the mausoleum at Halicarnassus in his memory. and Gramineae were the major herbs (Liu 1991). Thiscombination indicates a temperate but dry and cool climate. In general,estimates of mean annual temperature during the LGM in the region varyfrom 4 [degrees] to 10 [degrees] C lower than at the present (Xu 1985;Zhang et al. 1985), and the precipitation from 400 to 1000 mm less thanthe current level (Wang et al. 1995). From 15,000 to 13,700 BP the palaeoclimate moderated, as treesincreased to 46-47% of the total pollen composition, with oak becomingthe major component, followed by pine, elm and willow (Xu & Zhu1984). Herbs accounted for 36-39%, the rest were ferns.Drought-resistant herbs and hygrophilous plants were both present,indicating that the palaeoclimate was meister and warmer than that inthe previous stage. After 13,700 BP the palaeoclimate became colder and drier again.Both the quantity and the variety of the pollen profile weresubstantially reduced. Drought-resistant herbs dominated, indicating asteppe steppe(stĕp), temperate grassland of Eurasia, consisting of level, generally treeless plains. It extends over the lower regions of the Danube and in a broad belt over S and SE European and Central Asian Russia, stretching E to the Altai and S to environment with sparse deciduous tree deciduous treeBroad-leaved tree that sheds all its leaves during one season. Deciduous forests are found in three middle-latitude regions with a temperate climate characterized by a winter season and year-round precipitation: eastern North America, western Eurasia, and cover (Xu et al. 1987). Itis estimated that the average annual temperature of this period wasabout 6-7 [degrees] C lower than that at the present, with aprecipitation of 500600 mm (Xu et al. 1987). Pollen data from Gucheng,Zhenjiang, Tai Lake and Qidong in Jiangsu province indicate a sharpincrease of fir (Abies), spruce (Picea) and drought-resistant herbsbetween 11,300 and 10,000 BP (Liu & Chang 1996). This sudden changeof vegetation seems to suggest an abrupt climatic deterioration, whichwas comparable to the Younger Dryas (Liu & Chang 1996). Whereas changes of floral composition in the middle and lowerYangzi Valley were quite apparent during the LGM, faunal changes seemmuch less obvious. The Ailuropoda (giant panda)-Stegodon fauna dominatedthe Yangzi Valley and South China from the middle Pleistocene So far, the Pleistocene Series is not subdivided into formal units (i.e., Stages). Several solutions were proposed, and dedicated working groups are presently pursuing an agreed solution. to theearly Holocene. Many species of this fauna, such as macaques, gianttapir and Chinese rhinoceros rhinoceros,massive hoofed mammal of Africa, India, and SE Asia, characterized by a snout with one or two horns. The rhinoceros family, along with the horse and tapir families, forms the order of odd-toed hoofed mammals. were still found in the Yangzi Valleyduring the LGM epoch (Hah & Xu 1989). The presence of these animalssuggests that the palaceolimate in the Yangzi Valley might not have beenas severe as that of the Yellow Valley. However, some animals not belonging to the giant panda-Stegodonfauna but to a cool climate were present in this region during the LGM,such as Himalayan goat (Huang et al. 1987), brown bear, short-faced mole The Short-faced Mole (Scaptochirus moschatus) is a species of mammal in the Talpidae family. It is monotypic within the genus Scaptochirus. It is endemic to China. SourceInsectivore Specialist Group 1996. Scaptochirus moschatus. and rat-like hamster hamster,Old World rodent, related to the voles, lemmings, and New World mice. There are many hamster species, classified in several genera. All are solitary, burrowing, nocturnal animals, with chunky bodies, short tails, soft, thick fur, and large external cheek (Li & Lei 1980). The short-faced mole andhamster today live in dry steppe and sandy areas, while the brown bearmainly lives in cool deciduous forest and bushy bush��y?adj. bush��i��er, bush��i��est1. Overgrown with bushes.2. Thick and shaggy: a bushy head of hair. areas (Hah & Xu1989). The presence of these species suggests a cooler and drierpalaeoclimate. The beginning of the Holocene at about 10,000 BP witnessed anincrease of trees and ferns, and a decrease of herbs in the YangziValley (Gu 1991; Liu 1991). Within trees, the proportion of fir declinedsignificantly, while broad-leafed and evergreen trees increasedsubstantially (Liu 1991; Pollen Laboratory, IA, Hunan Province 1990).The quantity of pollen grains was also more abundant in the earlyHolocene stratum than that in the Pleistocene (Liu 1991), indicating anincrease of vegetation during a warm and moist period. It is estimatedthat the temperature at the beginning of the Holocene in the middle andlower Yangzi Valley was about 1 [degrees] C lower than that at thepresent, but was similar to the present after 8000 BP (PollenLaboratory, IA, Hunan Province 1990). The warm and moist palaeoclimate of the early Holocene must haveprovided a better environment for animals in the region. A few faunashave been found, represented by the famous Hemudu fauna in the lowerYangzi Valley, consisting of 61 animal species (Liu & Yao 1993). Inthe Jinhua cave in Jiangsu province, 46 species were found (Ma &Tang 1992). Both dated to around 7000 BP, the majority of animals inthese two faunas belong to subtropical to tropical environments (Ma& Tang 1992), suggesting a temperate palaeoclimate, probably evenslightly warmer and meister than at present. The palaeoclimatic changes during the terminal Pleistocene had asignificant impact on floral resources in the Yangzi Valley. Theshrinking or disappearance of many deciduous, broad-leafed and evergreentrees means a significant reduction of many edible fruits and nuts forprehistoric foragers. The faunal resources in the Yangzi Valley seem tohave been relatively stable, but the cold and dry palaeoclimate mighthave also reduced the habitats for these animals, and consequently theirquantity. These floral and, probably to a less extent, faunal changes musthave had an impact on the prehistoric foragers in the region. Thereduction of fruits and nuts, and the dominance of herbs might haveencouraged foragers in the Yangzi Valley to consume wild grasses, suchas rice. According to archaeological discoveries, husks of wild rice(Oryza rufipogon) have been found in the Yuchan Cave in the middleYangzi Valley (Yuan 1996), and phytoliths of wild rice have beenidentified in Xianrendong, in the lower Yangzi Valley (Zhao et al.1995). These discoveries suggest that wild rice was collected during theterminal Pleistocene. Archaeological discoveries in the Yangzi Valley dated to theterminal Pleistocene have been mainly found in caves and river terraces.The Yanier and Zhangnao Caves in the middle reaches, Yuchan cave in thesouthern edge of the middle Yangzi area, and the Xianrendong andDiaotonghuan caves in the lower valley, are important archaeologicalassemblages for this period. The degree of sedentism of these foragersis not yet clear, but the discoveries of deer antlers and phytoliths ofwild rice in Xianrendong indicate occupation from autumn to the nextspring, as these would have been seasons for rice harvesting and deerhunting (Lu 1998). Choppers and chopping tools made from pebbles dominate theseassemblages. Morphologically, these pebble tools remained little changedsince the middle Pleistocene in the region. But it is notable that somenew tools occurred during the terminal Pleistocene in the Yangzi Valleyand South China, namely perforated pebbles, discoid discoid/dis��coid/ (dis��koid)1. disk-shaped.2. a dental instrument with a disklike or circular blade.3. a disk-shaped dental excavator designed to remove the carious dentin of a decayed tooth. choppers, smallflakes made of black chert chert:see flint. or quartzite quartzite,usually metamorphic rock composed of firmly cemented quartz grains. Most often it is white, light gray, yellowish, or light brown, but is sometimes colored blue, green, purple, or black by included minerals. , and organic arrowheads andharpoons found in Xianrendong (Lu 1998; MacNeish & Taylor 1995).Although the functions of the new lithic lith��ic?1?adj.Consisting of or relating to stone or rock.Adj. 1. lithic - of or containing lithium2. lithic - relating to or composed of stone; "lithic sandstone" implements await furtherinvestigation, their presence suggests changes in subsistence strategiesduring that time. Noticeably, pottery was also present during the terminalPleistocene. Potsherds were found in Yuchan and Xianrendong caves, datedearlier than 10,000 BP (Yuan 1996; MacNeish & Libby 1995). Asmentioned above, macro- or micro-remains of wild rice have beenidentified from these two assemblages. This co-existence of pottery andremains of wild rice may not be coincidental. Cooked rice was found froma pot in Hemudu, dated to around 7000 BP (Liu & Yao 1993),indicating that cooking rice was one of the major functions for pottery.The coexistence of pottery and wild rice may suggest that cooking wildrice would have stimulated pottery production. As cooked rice was atasty and nutritious food, the invention and usage of pottery might havefurther encouraged the extensive exploitation of wild rice (Lu 1998). An extensive exploitation of wild rice would have been a necessaryprelude to its cultivation. Common wild rice (Oryza rufipogon) is anaquatic plant adapted to sub-tropical to tropical environments, withlimited cold tolerance (Guangxi Survey Group of Wild Rice 1990). Only afew stands of common wild rice survive in the Yangzi Valley today(National Survey Group of Wild Rice 1984). If the palaeoclimate wasslightly colder than that at the present at about 10,000-9000 BP, commonwild rice might not have been widely distributed Adj. 1. widely distributed - growing or occurring in many parts of the world; "a cosmopolitan herb"; "cosmopolitan in distribution"cosmopolitanbionomics, environmental science, ecology - the branch of biology concerned with the relations between organisms in areas along latitude25 [degrees] N. In addition, perennial wild rice produces very limitedseeds each year (Oka 1975). If wild rice was exploited from the terminalPleistocene to the beginning of the Holocene, and the natural supply ofthis plant could not meet the increased demand from foragers,cultivation might have been triggered as a method of increasing thesupply of this wild grass (Lu 1998). A large quantity of rice husks and straw was found as potterytempers in Pengtoushan, dated to approximately 8900-8000 BP (IA, HunanProvince and Lixian Museum 1990; Chen & Hedges 1994). Given thequantity of rice husks, as well as the discoveries of house remains,pits and burials, it is proposed that rice might have been cultivatedthere (Pei 1995). Recently, more than 10,000 grains of rice wereuncovered from Bashidang in Hunan province (Pei 1998). The rice has beenidentified as an early type of domesticated rice by phytolith phy��to��lith?n.A minute particle formed of mineral matter by a living plant and fossilized in rock. andmicroscope analysis (Zhang & Pei 1997). Radiocarbon dated toapproximately 8400-7700 BP (Chen 1998), Bashidang is contemporary to, orslightly later than the Pengtoushan assemblage. This discovery documentsthat rice cultivation had begun in the middle Yangzi Valley by 8400-8000BP, when the palaeoclimate was improved, but still slightly colder thanat the present. Phytoliths of domesticated rice are also reported fromXianrendong (Zhao et al. 1995), indicating that rice cultivation wasprobably also practised there by approximately the same time or evenearlier (MacNeish et al. 1998). It is notable that small flakes were found in Pengtoushan,Bashidang and Xianrendong (IA, Hunan Province & Lixian Museum 1990;Pei 1998; MacNeish & Libby 1995), indicating a cultural continuityfrom the terminal Pleistocene to the early Holocene. On the other hand,a large quantity of bone, bamboo and wooden implements were discoveredfrom Bashidang (Pei 1998); some of them, such as wooden pestles, woodenspades and diggers Diggers,members of a small English religio-economic movement (fl. 1649–50), so called because they attempted to dig (i.e., cultivate) the wastelands. They were an offshoot of the more important group of Puritan extremists known as the Levelers. might have been used for rice processing andcultivation, although this hypothesis warrants further study. Pottery, over 100 burials, remains of pile-dwellings,semi-subterranean and ground-level houses have been found in Bashidang,surrounded by protective ditches (Pei 1998). Pottery tempered with ricehusks and straw, small polished axes, the remains of houses, pits andburials were found in Pengtoushan (IA, Hunan Province & LixianMuseum 1990). These discoveries portray two sedentary agriculturalsocieties in the middle Yangzi Valley by 8000 BP. The discovery of theremains of one large and several small houses at Pengtoushan may alsoindicate a certain degree of social complexity. No animal bones werereported in Pengtoushan, but a large quantity of wild and domesticatedanimal bones were found from Bashidang, including deer, muntjac muntjac:see deer. muntjacor barking deerAny of about seven species of solitary, nocturnal deer, native to Asia and introduced into England and France, that constitute the genus Muntiacus (family Cervidae). , ox, pigand chicken, as well as about 20 genera of wild plants (Pei 1998). Fulldetails of the Bashidang discovery are not yet available, but it seemsthat the assemblage represents an affluent, sedentary agricultural groupwith various subsistence strategies. By 8000-7500 BP, rice cultivation had spread eastwards from themiddle Yangzi Valley, represented by the Fenshanbao assemblages[ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 1 OMITTED]. Remains of possible pile-dwellings,pits, over 50 burials, polished and flaked stone tools and potterytempered with rice husks were found in the Fenshanbao assemblage. Thepile-dwelling, early pottery and toolkit of Fenshanbao show amorphological similarity from that of the Pengtoushan/Bashidangassemblages (Archaeology Team of Yueyang City and CPAM CPAM Caisse Primaire d'Assurance Maladie (French: health insurance)CPAM Crime Prevention Association of MichiganCPAM Certified Patient Account Manager (AAHAM)of QianlianghuFarm 1994), suggesting a cultural connection. Domesticated rice was also found in the Huai Valley, north of theYangzi Valley, from the Jiahu assemblage. Identified by pottery andtools, the Jiahu assemblage undoubtedly belongs to the renownedPeiligang culture The Peiligang culture (裴李崗文化) is a name given by archaeologists to a group of Neolithic communities in the Yiluo River valley in Henan Province, China. The culture existed from 7000 BC to 5000 BC. in the Yellow Valley (IA, Henan Province 1989). Datedfrom 85007700 BP, Jiahu is contemporary with, or slightly later than thePengtoushan assemblage, yet its material culture seems more advancedthan that of Pengtoushan. It is not yet clear whether remains ofdomesticated rice were found from the earliest stage of the Jiahuassemblage, but the discovery of domesticated rice in Jiahu suggeststhat rice cultivation had dispersed to different cultural groups by 8000BP. Rice husks and straw was also found as pottery tempers from theChengbeixi assemblage in the Three Gorges The Three Gorges (Simplified Chinese: 三峡; Traditional Chinese: 三峽; Pinyin: Sānxi��[ of the Yangzi Valley (Lu1993). The Chengbeixi assemblage is dated to around 8500-7500 BP(Institute of Archaeology The Institute of Archaeology is an academic department of University College London (UCL), in the United Kingdom. The Institute is located in a separate building at the north end of Gordon Square, Bloomsbury. CASS CASSCardiology, cardiovascular surgery A randomized, open label, multicenter trial that compared the outcomes of CABG vs. medical therapy on M&M in Pts with coronary artery disease after an MI. See Angina, CABG, Silent ischemia. 1991), again contemporary with, orslightly later than Pengtoushan. Polished stone axes and adzes werefound from Chengbeixi, but it is not certain whether the rice wasdomesticated. In addition, no house remains, pits or burials have beenreported for this assemblage. Whether rice was cultivated in theChengbeixi area is unclear at this stage. By 7000-6000 BP, as the palaeoclimate became warmer and moisterthan that of the present, rice cultivation dispersed further. Thenorthbound dispersal reached the heartland of the Yellow Valley by 7000BP, represented by the Lijiacun assemblage [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 1OMITTED]. The tools and pottery there are similar to those of thePeiligang culture in the Yellow River valley, yet the remains ofdomesticated rice have been found there (Chen 1994). The eastbounddispersal reached the Yangzi delta at the same time, represented by thefamous Hemudu assemblage [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 1 OMITTED]. Polishedstone, bone and wooden tools, pottery, burials, remains of piledwellings, animal bones and a substantial quantity of domesticated ricehave been found there (Liu & Yao 1993). These discoveries portray asedentary, affluent prehistoric village dated from 7000 to 6000 BP atthe Yangzi delta, with rice cultivation being their major economicactivity, supplemented by hunting, gathering and fishing (Liu & Yao1993). On the other hand, the southbound dispersal of rice cultivationseems less well documented. Up-to-date, solid evidence of domesticatedrice in south China is still that unearthed Unearthed is the name of a Triple J project to find and "dig up" (hence the name) hidden talent in regional Australia.Unearthed has had three incarnations - they first visited each region of Australia where Triple J had a transmitter - 41 regions in all. from Shixia, Guangdongprovince Noun 1. Guangdong province - a province in southern ChinaGuangdong, Kwangtung , dated to about 4800-4600 BP (Li 1986). Since the late 1980s,archaeological assemblages with colour painted and engraved potterysimilar to those found in the middle Yangzi Valley have been discoveredin South China and Hong Kong Hong Kong(hŏng kŏng), Mandarin Xianggang, special administrative region of China, formerly a British crown colony (2005 est. pop. 6,899,000), land area 422 sq mi (1,092 sq km), adjacent to Guangdong prov. , represented by the Dahuangsha andXiantouling assemblages in Guangdong province (He 1994). Dated to about6500-5500 BP, these discoveries suggest a cultural dispersal from theYangzi valley to South China. But no archaeobotanic evidence for ricecultivation has been reported in these assemblages. In summary, the cool and dry palaeoclimate during the LGM hadsignificantly changed the flora in the middle and lower Yangzi Valley.As the availability of nuts and fruits reduced, and herbs dominated thelocal vegetation, prehistoric foragers might have turned to theextensive exploitation of wild grasses, including rice. Archaeologicaldiscoveries in the Yangzi Valley seem to have documented that wild rice,as well as other plants, were collected by local foragers at theterminal Pleistocene, and rice was cultivated in the early Holocene. Thedeterioration of the palaeoclimate during the terminal Pleistocene mighthave had a causal impact on the emergence of rice cultivation in theYangzi valley (Higham 1995). This transition from collecting to cultivating rice was accompaniedby the move from seasonal or semi-sedentary occupancy of caves and riverterraces to permanent villages; from choppers and chopping tools topolished axes and adzes. Bone, bamboo and wooden implements might havebeen important tools for rice cultivation in the Yangzi Valley, asdiscovered from Bashidang and Hemudu. An extensive collection of wildgrasses (including wild rice) might have played a causal role for theemergence of pottery. On the other hand, pottery might have furtherfacilitated the exploitation of seeds from wild grasses. Suchexploitation would have been a necessary prelude to the domestication ofrice, a move which might have reduced the mobility of foragers, whichconsequently might have increased their population and the degree ofsedentism. Once the availability of wild rice could not meet the demandof foragers, cultivation might have been triggered in order to increasethe supply of this grass, which eventually led to domestication. An independent origin of rice cultivation in the Huai Valley basedupon the discovery of rice in the Jiahu assemblage has been proposed(Zhang 1994). This is arguable, as wild rice was not likely to have beenavailable in that area from the terminal Pleistocene to the beginning ofthe Holocene due to the cold palaeoclimate. Whether wild rice had movednorthwards after the beginning of the Holocene, and whether the Huaivalley was another sub-centre for an indigenous development of ricecultivation, remains a question. The expansion of rice cultivation to the south The opening of research into the prehistory prehistory,period of human evolution before writing was invented and records kept. The term was coined by Daniel Wilson in 1851. It is followed by protohistory, the period for which we have some records but must still rely largely on archaeological evidence to of the Yangzi Valleyover the last two decades has now established the region, when linkedwith the Yellow River valley to the north, as one of only two in Eurasiawhich witnessed an indigenous transition to the cultivation of a majorgrain. Moreover, the development of rice and millet millet,common name for several species of grasses cultivated mainly for cereals in the Eastern Hemisphere and for forage and hay in North America. The principal varieties are the foxtail, pearl, and barnyard millets and the proso millet, called also broomcorn millet agriculture tookplace at approximately the same time as similar trends in the Levant Levant(ləvănt`)[Ital.,=east], collective name for the countries of the eastern shore of the Mediterranean from Egypt to, and including, Turkey. ,and resulted in the establishment of similar relatively large, sedentarycommunities. This situation encourages consideration of one of the mostcontroversial of recent proposals in prehistory, the links betweenagricultural origins, the expansion of population and with both, theintroduction of languages and genes into areas hitherto uninhabited orthe domain of hunters and gatherers (Renfrew 1987). Thus our growingknowledge of the prehistory of Southeast Asia, which at its broadestdefinition could incorporate the Yangzi Valley, not only permits anunderstanding of an area which today sustains a very high percentage ofhumanity, but also a vehicle for testing and refining the model foragricultural expansions formulated by Renfrew. It is first necessary to enquire en��quire?v.Variant of inquire.enquireVerb[-quiring, -quired] same as inquireenquiry nVerb 1. whether there is sufficientevidence to support an expansion of farming communities from a source inthe Yangzi Valley, and then to test the notion that the distribution ofsuch communities relates in any way to the presence of related languagesor the biological characteristics of the people then and now. Given the widespread dominance of rice cultivation from southernChina (Lingnan), through Vietnam to Myanmar and eastern India, it ishardly surprising to find that archaeologists working in this broadtract have initially sought to identify local origins for ricedomestication. In the 1960s, for example, investigations in the seriesof small rock-shelters in upland Thailand underpinned claims for a veryearly and indigenous Neolithic revolution (Solheim 1972). Spirit Caveentered the general literature as the flagship for this claim, and riceitself was found at nearby Banyan Valley Cave. The context for thelatter finds, however, was much later than anticipated, the latest dateeven falling in the 1st millennium AD (Reynolds 1992), while the riceitself was judged by Yen (1977) to derive from a local wild variety.This proposal has now been set aside. Gorman (1977) then advanced a hypothesis that rice cultivationoriginated in the piedmont marsh zone between the uplands of thePhetchabun Range in Thailand, and the flat plains of the Khorat Plateau.Fieldwork in this area, however, failed to reveal any relevant sites. Higham and Thosarat then formulated a further model, which saw ricecoming under cultivation in the coastal habitat of the Gulf of Siam Noun 1. Gulf of Siam - an arm of the South China Sea between Indochina and the Malay PeninsulaGulf of ThailandSouth China Sea - a tropical arm of the Pacific Ocean near southeastern Asia subject to frequent typhoons , asthe sea level fluctuated and fresh-water swamps formed behind a mangrove mangrove,large tropical evergreen tree, genus Rhizophora, that grows on muddy tidal flats and along protected ocean shorelines. Mangroves are most abundant in tropical Asia, Africa, and the islands of the SW Pacific. fringe (Higham & Bannanurag 1990). This was based on early findingsfrom the site of Khok Phanom Di, where rice remains were recovered inassociation with 14C dates on human bone which suggested occupation inthe 7th millennium BP. A major excavation in 1984-5, however, revealedthat the site was first occupied in the vicinity of 4000 BP, and thatfor much of its occupancy, mangrove and saltflat conditions would nothave encouraged the local cultivation of rice, despite the presence ofdomestic rice remains in the peoples' diet (Thompson 1996). Maloney (1991) took several pollen cores from the vicinity of thesite as part of this research initiative, and found phases whereincreased counts of charcoal and open rather than forest indicatorssuggested disturbance to the natural vegetation. These have been AMS AMS - Andrew Message System dated to 7870-6685 and 7370-6515 BP. Maloney et al. (1989) have cited atleast three possible causes: natural conflagrations, hunter-inducedburnoffs, or settlement by agriculturalists. More recently, White (1997) has cited another example of suchchanges in vegetation identified in cores taken from Lake Kumphawapi asevidence for some form of agriculture in Northeast Thailand during the7th millennium BP. It is, however, stressed that it is necessary totrace prehistoric settlement by rice farmers before these findingsassume serious archaeological significance. Despite many fieldworkprogrammes, this has yet to be accomplished. Although Thai initiatives and sites have been singled out becausethey are best documented in the literature, it is noted that no evidenceis known for a local transition to rice domestication from Guangdong inLingnan to eastern India. This region, on the other hand, is richlyendowed with evidence for hunter-gatherers which are, unfortunately,usually referred to as Neolithic in China and Vietnam. What are thecharacteristics of these communities? Holocene hunter-gatherers in Southeast Asia The hunter-gatherer occupation of Southeast Asia south of theNanling Range during the Holocene falls into two distinct facies facies/fa��ci��es/ (fa��she-ez) pl. fa��cies ? [L.]1. the face.2. surface; the outer aspect of a body part or organ.3. expression (1). , and itis within these that we must either seek an indigenous development ofrice cultivation, or the reaction to intrusive agriculturalists. Thebest-known adaptation took place in the canopied inland forest habitat.Where there are rock-shelters, it is not unusual to encounter evidencefor a group widely known as Hoabinhian, a term coined following thefirst investigations in such sites by Colani in the Vietnamese Provinceof the same name. There are other regional groupings, such as theBacsonian, but all have in common a flaked stone industry and recurrentevidence for hunting, gathering and collecting within the forested andoften the stream-edge environment. The occupation of open areas is farless well documented, no doubt due to the ephemeral nature of transientsites, and the widespread remodelling of the landscape by natural and,more recently, human agencies. The second adaptation saw the occupation of the coast and thus theexploitation of marine resources. Due to the Mid Holocene rise in sealevel, many sites have surely been inundated. Only with the formation ofraised beaches do we find surviving sites, and from Lingnan to the Gulfof Siam these exhibit a number of common features. In the first place,the occupants were able to tap one of the richest known habitats, interms of bio-productivity. This encouraged sedentism, at least formonths and probably over years as well in particularly well-endowedareas, such as major estuaries. In terms of material culture, weencounter a vigorous ceramic industry, doubtless of considerableantiquity, and the polishing of stone tools. Inhumation burials wereusually interred in a seated, flexed posture in considerable cemeteries.Despite their often being described as Neolithic, none of these sites,prior to about 4000 BP, provides any unequivocal, biological evidencefor agriculture or the domestication of animals. A good example of such a site is Nong Nor, located behind thepresent shore of the Gulf of Siam (Higham & Thosarat 1998). Theoccupants of this site are thought to have lived on the edge of anextensive marine embayment over a period of months in the vicinity of4500 BP. There, they made pottery vessels, buried the dead in a flexedposture under whole pots, and used polished adzes of exotic stone. Theycollected shellfish from the sandy shore by the million, hunted dolphinsand small whales, and brought in a variety of sharks and smaller fish.The considerable evidence of burning, associated with cooking hearthsand pottery-firing areas, would no doubt have affected the amount ofcharcoal which settled in naturally accumulated deposits, providingpeaks like those recognized widely in pollen cores. No rice has beenfound at this site during its occupation by hunter-gatherers, despiteflotation, examination of the pottery for rice as a temper or accidentalinclusion, and excellent conditions for preservation which include thesurvival of wood. Extensive excavations at the site of Con Co Ngua in Thanh HoaProvince Thanh H��a is a province in the North Central Coast of Vietnam. Its capital is Thanh H��a City. The province has a well-known sea resort called Sầm Sơn, which is situated about 15 km from the provincial capital. , Vietnam, have uncovered a second such site, in whichsettlement took place a millennium earlier than at Nong Nor (Nguyen KimThuy 1998). Just over 100 inhumation burials were found, most in aflexed, squatting posture. Hardly any infants were recovered, however,and of the adults, death was particularly high in the age group 20-30years. The material culture generally matches that identified at NongNor, and no remains of rice have been disclosed at this or any othercomparable site in Vietnam. The first evidence for rice farming in Lingnan, Vietnam, Thailandand eastern India Lingnan is linked to the Yangzi Valley by the Ganjiang andXiangjiang, rivers which flow northward respectively to lakes Poyang andDongting, and the Biejiang which flows south to the lowlands ofGuangdong Guangxi. This is a natural conduit for exchange of goods andideas and likewise for any expansionary ex��pan��sion��ar��y?adj.Tending toward or causing expansion: the empire's expansionary policies in Asia.movement of peoples, and it isthus interesting to note that such sites as Shixia, Xincun,Chuangbanling and Niling provide u s with the first evidence for ricecultivation in Lingnan. At Shixia, which is dated to between 4850 and4500 BP, we encounter a cemetery which involved extended inhumation, inassociation with a material culture intimately related to the Liangzhuculture to the north. Similar forms of bracelets, jade cong, pendantsand slit rings link the two areas. Naturally, such items could have beenobtained by local people through exchange, but the new inhumation ritualand presence of abundant rice makes an intrusive movement equally, ifnot more tenable ten��a��ble?adj.1. Capable of being maintained in argument; rationally defensible: a tenable theory.2. . The sequel was the Nianyuzhuan culture, in which extendedinhumation continued, as at the middle phase of Shixia itself, and awide range of decorated pottery was kiln-fired. However, the stonejewellery fell away in quantity. It seems that such sites did notquickly penetrate the coastal area, where the Hedang culture of theZhujiang Delta area maintained a tradition of exploiting marineresources, and the burials display features, such as tooth evulsion evulsion/evul��sion/ (e-vul��shun) extraction by force. e��vul��sionn.A forcible pulling out or extraction. ,noted at coastal sites even as far afield as the Gulf of Siam. Zhu Feisu(1984) has suggested that rice cultivation was not quickly adopted insuch contexts. In the middle country above the Red River delta The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter.Please help [ improve the introduction] to meet Wikipedia's layout standards. You can discuss the issue on the talk page. in Vietnam, thePhung Nguyen culture settlements represent a signal departure fromearlier hunter-gatherer sites. Ha Van Tan (1991), who has divided thesequence into three phases, has suggested that initial settlementoccurred in the late 5th millennium BP and continued to the inception ofthe Bronze Age Dong Dau phase in the middle 4th millennium BP. The pointabout Phung Nguyen sites is, again, the establishment inland ofagricultural communities, who interred the dead by extended inhumation.There is abundant evidence for the cultivation of rice, maintenance ofdomestic animals, including the dog, the manufacture of potterydecorated with bands and a range of incised or stamped designs, and aconsiderable interest in fine stone ornaments. Graves from Phung Nguyenand Xom Ren contained ceremonial jade yazhang blades with clearparallels at Erlitou, Sanxingdui and Shang sites. In northeast and central Thailand, we now know of a series of siteswhich provide evidence for the establishment of agricultural villages.Ban Kao was the first excavated and Sorensen (Sorensen & Hatting1968) described a series of inhumation graves with a variety of gravegoods, including pottery vessels, polished stone adzes and marine shellbeads. The radiocarbon dates suggest occupation by the late 5thmillennium BP, lasting into the early 4th millennium. Further cemeteriesand occupation sites are known at Non Pa Wai and Non Mak La in the KhaoWong Prachan Valley, again with initial occupation being dated to c.4300 BP. During the 1970s, claims for much earlier settlement by ricefarmers were made on the basis of controversial dates derived from thesites of Non Nok Tha and Ban Chiang, on the Khorat Plateau of NortheastThailand. The advent of AMS radiocarbon dating and its application torice chaff chaff1. chaffed hay; called also chop.2. the winnowings from a threshing, consisting of awns, husks, glumes and other relatively indigestible materials. found in provenanced pottery vessels from burials has setthese claims aside, and the most recent results indicate that thesesites were first settled towards the end of the 5th millennium BP(Higham 1996; White 1997). The dead were interred with incised potteryvessels, often tempered with rice chaff, and the remains of domesticcattle, pigs and dogs. Khok Phanom Di provides an opportunity to assess the relationshipbetween intrusive agriculturalists and sedentary coastalhunter-gatherers. Occupying an estuarine es��tu��a��rine?adj.1. Of, relating to, or found in an estuary.2. Geology Formed or deposited in an estuary.Adj. 1. estuarine - of or relating to or found in estuariesestuarial location between 4000-3500 BP,the material culture at the base of this deep site clearly links it withthe nearby hunter-gatherer settlement of Nong Nor. Yet the remains ofdomestic rice have been found throughout its occupation, and thepreferred method of burial was by extended inhumation with the headorientated to the east. We also know, from the study of partiallydigested food in the pelvic region of one individual, and a coprolite cop��ro��lite?n.Fossilized excrement.copro��litic adj. from another, that rice and fish were consumed. Although the final analysis of this site has not been completed, itseems that hunter-gatherers interacted with inland agriculturaliststhrough exchange, perhaps involving people as well as access to thedomestic dog, shell ornaments, pottery vessels, stone artefacts andrice. Only during a brief phase when the sea level fell and freshwaterconditions prevailed, however, do we find the shell reaping knives andgranite hoes which suggest local cultivation. With a reversion to moremarine conditions, the use of agricultural implements lapsed and, wesuspect, people returned to hunting, gathering and fishing. At nojuncture were there any domestic animals other than the dog. The earliest presence of cultivated rice in eastern India has alsobeen confused by claims for very early sites which are not supported bya critical review of the evidence (Glover & Higham 1996). A morecautious stance would see rice being established in the second half ofthe 5th millennium BP at such sites as Khairadih and Taradih. Glover haslisted four sites belonging to this time-span, but eight times thatnumber for the ensuing 2nd millennium (Glover & Higham 1996).Moreover, these sites yield cord-marked pottery more akin to the ceramictradition of Southeast Asia than to India at this period. Archaeology and language Blust (1996), following on Reid's (1993) study of the Nancowrylanguage of the Nicobar Islands, has suggested that the Austro-Asiatic(AA) languages of Southeast Asia are genetically linked withAustronesian (AN) languages through a shared ancestry in the Austricphylum phylum,in taxonomy: see classification. . This proposed linkage has required a major review of East andSoutheast Asian prehistory, which further encouraged Blust to suggestthat the present distribution of AA languages is most easily explainedas the result of the expansion of rice cultivating communities withultimate origins in the catchment of the Yangzi River. AA languages fall into three major groups, Munda, Nicobarese andMen-Khmer, and their separation has a time-depth measured in millennia.The last group includes Vietnamese, Men and Khmer. Zide & Zide(1976) have noted cognates for rice and aspects of its cultivation whichlink Munda with Men-Khmer languages, while Norman & Mei (1976) havesuggested an AA substratum sub��stra��tum?n. pl. sub��stra��ta or sub��stra��tums1. a. An underlying layer.b. A layer of earth beneath the surface soil; subsoil.2. A foundation or groundwork.3. in the languages now spoken in Lingnan. Morerecent arrivals have brought Austro-Tai and Sine-Tibetan languages intoSoutheast Asia, leading to a discontinuous discontinuous/dis��con��tin��u��ous/ (dis?kon-tin��u-us)1. interrupted; intermittent; marked by breaks.2. discrete; separate.3. lacking logical order or coherence. distribution of AA languages.In Thailand, for example, Men is spoken only in a few isolated uplandcommunities (Diffloth 1981). If further research sustains the proposed validity of the Austricphylum as progenitor pro��gen��i��torn.1. A direct ancestor.2. An originator of a line of descent.progenitorancestor, including parent.progenitor cellstem cells. of both AA and AN languages, then the simplestexplanation for their present distribution, and the consistent,widespread evidence for intrusive movements into both mainland andisland Southeast Asia by the 5th millennium BP, is a process ofpopulation growth and expansion fuelled by an economy based on thecultivation of rice. Naturally, where rice was not adaptive, as in muchof the area occupied by AN speakers, it was replaced. Bellwood (1993)has further proposed that such an expansionary movement involved thearrival of southern Mongoloid people into tropical Southeast Asia at theexpense of the local Negrito populations, only few of whom now survivein isolated pockets. One of the advantages of this bold new configuration is that it istestable by new techniques of analysis. Already, the genetics of the dogare under review, and it will be interesting to see if the Chinese wolfis ancestor to the Southeast Asian and Polynesian domestic dog. Themolecular biology molecular biology,scientific study of the molecular basis of life processes, including cellular respiration, excretion, and reproduction. The term molecular biology was coined in 1938 by Warren Weaver, then director of the natural sciences program at the Rockefeller of present and prehistoric people will surely alsorespond to new methods of analysis. If these sustain the hypothesis thatthe origins of rice cultivation in the Yangzi Valley stimulated theexpansion of people to the south into tropical Southeast Asia and theadjoining islands, then indeed, we will have available evidence whichlends a measure of support to a second such expansion to the west, whichinvolved speakers of Indo-European languages. References ARCHAEOLOGY TEAM OF YUEYANG CITY AND CPAM OF QIANLIANGHU FARM.1994. 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