The origins and development of African livestock: archaeology, genetics, linguistics and ethnography.

The origins and development of African livestock: archaeology, genetics, linguistics and ethnography. ROGER M. BLENCH blench?1?intr.v. blenched, blench��ing, blench��esTo draw back or shy away, as from fear; flinch.[Middle English blenchen, from Old English blencan, & KEVIN C. MACDONALD (ed.). The origins anddevelopment of African livestock: archaeology, genetics, linguistics andethnography, xx+546 pages, 94 figures, 76 tables. 2000. London: UCL UCL University College LondonUCL Universit�� Catholique de LouvainUCL UEFA Champions LeagueUCL Upper Confidence LimitUCL University of Central LancashireUCL Upper Control LimitUCL Unfair Competition LawUCL Ulnar Collateral Ligament ;hardback 1-84142-018-2 90 [pounds sterling]. The potential significance of the African continent as a centre ofincipient plant domestication domesticationProcess of hereditary reorganization of wild animals and plants into forms more accommodating to the interests of people. In its strictest sense, it refers to the initial stage of human mastery of wild animals and plants. has long been known through the work ofVavilov and others. Yet basic knowledge of the range of Africandomesticates, plant or animal, and the chronology and geography of theirdevelopment is still piecemeal. Three recent publications highlightcurrent understanding of the processes by which plant and animaleconomies were developed and spread across the continent. Thesepublications allow a broader review of the current state ofenvironmental archaeology on the African continent. One of the mostserious problems facing the implementation of environmental archaeologyis the lack of basic data. This relates both to direct archaeologicalinformation, in terms of the numbers of sites located, excavated anddated, and to comparative information concerning identification ofspecies and knowledge of environmental and ecological relationships Ecological Relationships result from the fact that organisms in an ecosystem interact with each other, in the natural world, no organism is an autonomous entity isolated from its surroundings. .Where the latter information does exist, it was often collected duringthe colonial era by European administrators whose predominant concernwas to replace seemingly primitive, inefficient indigenous domesticates,technologies and exploitation systems with non-African forms. The emergence of food production in Ethiopia is published in theCambridge Monographs in African Archaeology The continent of Africa has the longest record of human activity of any part of the world and along with its geographical extent, it contains an enormous archaeological resource. Scholars have studied Egyptology for centuries but archaeologists have only paid serious attention to the rest , a highly important seriesdisseminating the results of research from the continent. In order tore-evaluate models for the development of agriculture in Ethiopia,Barnett has compiled an impressive array of sources contributing to thedefinition of contemporary environments, crops, agricultural systems andlinguistic distributions. She has also collated a large amount ofpalaeoenvironmental, archaeological and, to a lesser extent, comparativelinguistic data with which to review traditional models of the origin ofEthiopian food production systems. She then generates her own tentativemodels. Several fundamental problems limit the outcomes of thisresearch. First, almost all the agronomic a��gron��o��my?n.Application of the various soil and plant sciences to soil management and crop production; scientific agriculture.ag data was generated before 1970by Europeans, and therefore must be carefully and critically read.Despite this agronomic work and the social upheavals of the last threedecades, undisturbed and unrecorded agricultural systems are still beingencountered in remote parts of Ethiopia. Critical reading of citedarchaeological evidence, such as the rejection of the early dating ofGobedra rock shelter A rock shelter is a shallow cave-like opening at the base of a bluff or cliff. Another term is rockhouse.Rock shelters form because a rock stratum such as sandstone that is resistant to erosion and weathering has formed a cliff or bluff, but a softer stratum, more subject , long since accepted by the excavator ex��ca��va��torn.An instrument, such as a sharp spoon or curette, used in scraping out pathological tissue.excavator (eks´k , is alsoimportant. Second, there is a preoccupation with origins which, althoughof some superficial significance in the present day, are increasinglybeing seen as a distraction by archaeologists and others. Regardless oftheir origins, the agricultural systems created in Ethiopia are clearlyunique. The Ethiopian achievement was therefore in taking somedomesticates from elsewhere (including barley, sorghum sorghum,tall, coarse annual (Sorghum vulgare) of the family Gramineae (grass family), somewhat similar in appearance to corn (but having the grain in a panicle rather than an ear) and used for much the same purposes. , lentil lentil,leguminous Old World annual plant (Lens culinaris) with whitish or pale blue flowers. Its pods contain two greenish-brown or dark-colored seeds, also called lentils, which when fully ripe are ground into meal or used in soups and stews. and chickpea) and combining these with innovations of their own (possibly fingermillet and certainly tef, ensete and noog), irrespective of when thistook place. A final problem relates to the archaeological data used inevaluating the models. The sum total of new archaeological evidencepresented is essentially an examination of four tiny, undated un��dat��ed?adj.1. Not marked with or showing a date: an undated letter; an undated portrait.2. potteryassemblages from previously excavated Late Stone Age sites which formthe basis for a projected early formation of agricultural systems andtrade networks, a good 4000 years earlier than existing archaeologicalevidence will allow. This volume does, however, provide a usefulintroduction to the issues of food production in Ethiopia and thiscollation COLLATION, descents. A term used in the laws of Louisiana. Collation -of goods is the supposed or real return to the mass of the succession, which an heir makes of the property he received in advance of his share or otherwise, in order that such property may be divided, together with the of material is likely to remain an important research tool forsome time to come. The two remaining volumes provide us with a useful yardstick withwhich to measure the development of plant- and animal-relateddisciplines on the African continent. The two volumes are reasonablywell presented and are richly illustrated, but at a resultant cost whichwill no doubt prevent their circulation on the African continent. Bothvolumes recognize the seminal contributions made by individuals whoapproached the African data from a background in agricultural science. Many of the papers in The origins and development of Africanlivestock identify the work of Epstein as laying the foundations for thepresent investigation of African livestock, recognizing as it does therole of herdsmen in creating the variations in breed across thecontinent. These were clearly not the result of tribal quirks but weredeliberate breeding choices made to produce livestock of a desirableform. This volume was produced as a result of a meeting held in Londonin 1995. Inevitably some new developments are not represented. Theintention was to provide a forum for the presentation and considerationof the latest information regarding African livestock. Thus, a majorconcern was to document the archaeological occurrences of livestock andcompare this information with that derived from other avenues ofresearch. A second intention of the volume was clearly to provide richdetail on livestock systems and animal exploitation in order to make acontribution to the formation of appropriate strategies for ruraldevelopment in the future. Decades of eurocentric agronomics, generatedby European officials or indigenous agricultural officers, trained inthe mantra of European commercial farming, had left centuries-old herdmanagement systems and their suitably adapted breeds of animals vastlyunder-researched and with tarnished reputations. For example, a numberof colonial officials predicted the disappearance of local Africancattle breeds being replaced by higher productivity exotic breeds. WithIndependence and in many cases the erosion of veterinary services, thesevaunted vaunt?v. vaunt��ed, vaunt��ing, vauntsv.tr.To speak boastfully of; brag about.v.intr.To speak boastfully; brag. See Synonyms at boast1.n.1. exotic breeds rapidly succumbed to disease and local breeds werere-established. The cornerstone of the 546-page volume is actually contained within15 pages. In two short papers, key genetic studies are re-presented andthe results discussed. Examination of mitachondrial DNA DNA:see nucleic acid. DNAor deoxyribonucleic acidOne of two types of nucleic acid (the other is RNA); a complex organic compound found in all living cells and many viruses. It is the chemical substance of genes. from a range ofcontemporary European, African and Indian breeds by Bradley & Loftusprovides compelling evidence of a separate origin for Indian cattle andalso good evidence to suggest a separate domestication of Africancattle. Intriguingly, this separate African domestication isdemonstrated in both humped and humpless African breeds, which, prior toDNA analysis DNA analysisAny technique used to analyze genes and DNA. See Chromosome walking, DNA fingerprinting, Footprinting, In situ hybridization, Jeffries' probe, Jumping libraries, PCR, RFLP analysis, Southern blot hybridization. , would have been considered quite distinct on the basis ofsimple morphology. These patterns define genes inherited through thefemale line. Consideration of the male inherited genes, by Loftus &Cunningham, is provided by examining the Y-chromosome haplotype haplotype/hap��lo��type/ (-tip) the group of alleles of linked genes, e.g., the HLA complex, contributed by either parent; the haploid genetic constitution contributed by either parent. hap��lo��typen. of anumber of African breeds. Here several taurine taurine/tau��rine/ (taw��ren) an oxidized sulfur-containing amine occurring conjugated in the bile, usually as cholyltaurine or chenodeoxycholyltaurine; it may also be a central nervous system neurotransmitter or neuromodulator. (humpless) breeds arefound to have zebu zebu(zē`by), domestic animal of the cattle family, Bos indicus, found in parts of E Asia, India, and Africa. (humped) haplotypes. This suggests that when Indiancattle were introduced, probably at some time around the end of the 1stmillennium AD, bulls were much more successful at spreading their genes,whilst Indian cows may rapidly have died out. These genetic resultsgreatly increase the significance of the earliest occurrences of cattlebone remains on archaeological sites, currently felt to be in theeastern Sahara by around 8000 BP, with, as one would expect, contestedearlier specimens. Of course, defining the earliest date fordomestication also requires the distinguishing of domestic cattle fromthe wild progenitor pro��gen��i��torn.1. A direct ancestor.2. An originator of a line of descent.progenitorancestor, including parent.progenitor cellstem cells. , a task that is still proving problematic. Cattleare clearly a subject which dominates the thoughts of many scholars, butthree other species in common use today appear to have been domesticated do��mes��ti��cate?tr.v. do��mes��ti��cat��ed, do��mes��ti��cat��ing, do��mes��ti��cates1. To cause to feel comfortable at home; make domestic.2. To adopt or make fit for domestic use or life.3. a. on the African continent, the donkey, the cat and the guinea-fowl. Inaddition, a wide range of animals have been incorporated into Africansocieties and households, including sheep, goat, camel, dog, pig,chicken, rabbit, giant rat, water buffalo water buffalo:see buffalo. water buffaloor Indian buffaloAny of three subspecies of oxlike bovid (species Bubalus bubalis). Two have been domesticated in Asia since the earliest recorded history. , elephant, pigeon, ostrich ostrich,common name for a large flightless bird (Struthio camelus) of Africa and parts of SW Asia, allied to the rhea, the emu and the extinct moa. It is the largest of living birds; some males reach a height of 8 ft (244 cm) and weigh from 200 to 300 lb ,crocodile, tortoise, terrapin terrapin(tĕr`əpĭn), name for several edible turtles of fresh or brackish water. terrapinAny omnivorous aquatic turtle of the family Emydidae, especially the diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin). , bee and snail. Many of these are of minorand very localized significance, but it is important to recognize thatarchaeologists and others have often been blinded by the maindomesticated triumvirate Triumvirate(trīŭm`vĭrĭt, –vĭrāt'), in ancient Rome, ruling board or commission of three men. Triumvirates were common in the Roman republic. of cattle, sheep and goat and have failed toconsider other species. Animals like donkey and dog (the latter of whichmay also have an African origin) contribute little directly tonutritional levels (although both are known to have been eaten on theAfrican continent), but enable and enhance a wide range of othereconomic activities. The donkey's potential for carrying andpulling, together with its ability to survive in harsh conditions and ona very poor diet, makes it a major asset in many contemporary Africansocieties. An important feature of the volume is the combination ofarchaeologists, geneticists, animal breeders, linguists andethnographers. However, the archaeological papers contribute little tothe overall debate on domestication and livestock development. Asmentioned, geneticists provide the main thrust, with some ableassistance from linguists. The concerns of archaeologists, asrepresented in this volume, appear hopelessly parochial alongside thediscussion of the relevance of such information for contemporary Africandevelopment. Blench (`minor' domesticates), Starkey (workinganimals) and Kidd & Schrimpf (bees) all present in-depth historicaltreatments of indigenous animal management systems in order to providethe basis for planning appropriate small-scale rural developmentstrategies. The various genetics papers emphasize the need forunderstanding genetic makeup and breed characterization for guidingappropriate development of livestock, rather than the wholesale importof exotic animals and ideas. Archaeology can make some contribution, butonly if there is a change of focus. In this volume, according to Blench`Archaeology deals in point data' (p. 18), which promotes theemphasis on a culture historical framework, particularly looking fororigins and migrations. Within African archaeology, however,zooarchaeologists have investigated issues of livestock management afterinitial domestication and spread, by considering animal bones asartefacts of human exploitation processes within sites, processes whichrequire and reward careful investigation. These, together withenvironmental data, do enable us to construct long-term pictures of herdmanagement systems, which are of relevance for contemporary developmentstrategists. Despite the discussion of strategies and decision-makingprovided by geneticists, linguists and ethnographers, Voigt'sgroundbreaking study of the zooarchaeological evidence at Mapungubwe(1983) goes unmentioned in Smith's chapter on southern Africa andFiona Marshall ignores her own exceptional work at Ngamuriak,southwestern Kenya. Ironically, the relevance of her work is picked upin passing by archaeologists, writing as ethnographers, discussingMaasai cattle management (Ryan et al.). The latter study not onlydemonstrates the significant information which archaeologists havegenerated, but also the need for archaeologists to access primaryethnographic sources in enriching their interpretation of their data.Thus, archaeology can be transformed from point data, into substantivediscussion of activities and practices within sites and acrosslandscapes. These themes have evidently already been incorporated byarchaeologists investigating plant remains from archaeological sites.The exploitation of plant resources in ancient Africa is dedicated tothe memory of Jack Harlan, who for decades had pointed out toarchaeologists, without much substantive reaction, that there wasconsiderable diversity in plant exploitation in Africa. The presentvolume is an indication that at last this situation is changing and thatarchaeologists are actively exploring the floral record of thecontinent. The volume itself is a publication of the proceedings of thesecond meeting of the International Workgroup for African Archaeobotany,held in Leicester in 1997. This volume is of remarkably consistentquality given its rapid production and considering that it is compiledfrom conference proceedings with no set theme. Three strands of researchstand out. First there are a range of plant remains from the EasternSahara which have survived because of the exceptional preservationconditions. Investigation of remote Roman quarries (Van der Veen) andRed Sea ports (Cappers, Vermeeren) in the eastern Sahara hasdemonstrated access to a wide range of plants, brought by supply trainsand trade networks, and has also established the ability of the quarriesto grow vegetables, such as cabbage and lettuce, in an area with a meanannual rainfall of 5 mm. The second strand has sought to help explainplant exploitation systems and the presence or absence of plant remainson archaeological sites through reconstructing contemporary practices.Thus, there are attempts to explain the absence of evidence for grain onfarming sites in Eastern Africa by examining contemporary cropprocessing in Uganda (Young & Thompson). Most striking, however, arethe two Ethiopian papers (D'Andrea et al., Butler et al.) whichdemonstrate the massive and largely untapped resource that still existsin rural African communities. Importantly, this information not onlysatisfies archaeologists themselves, for instance providing analogues ofrelevance for the understanding of early Near Eastern farming systems,but also provides invaluable recognition of indigenous knowledge systemsand practices. Most important of all, however, was a single paperforming the third strand of research. Rowly-Conwy et al. apply DNAanalysis to the issue of the domestication of sorghum, a grain of globalimportance, greatly underestimated in value because of its lack of usein temperate climates. Samples including wild sorghum and two strains ofdomesticated sorghum were obtained from the Upper Nile site of QasrIbrim and span the 3000-year occupation of the site. The absence ofgreat genetic divergence in all these specimens, combined with acritical reappraisal of the evidence for much earlier sorghum in theIndian subcontinent, supports the hypothesis that sorghum wasdomesticated at a late date in northeast Africa, in the 3rd millenniumBP. Combined with the earlier evidence for the exploitation of wildsorghum and a range of other grasses in the Eastern Sahara (Wasyilikowa& Dahlberg, Barakat & el-Din Fahmy), this indicates a nearly6000-year history of sorghum exploitation, prior to domestication. Thisexamination of DNA on archaeological data demonstrates its potential notsimply for investigations of plant exploitation but also for thedevelopment of animal breeds, by studying animal bones fromarchaeological sites. These two volumes also allow us to examine some more general issuesin the discipline. A curious fact is the gender divide. Almost 70% ofthe contributors to The exploitation of plants are women, whilstvirtually the same proportion of the authors in The origins anddevelopment of African livestock are men. Also noteworthy is the lowproportion of indigenous African scholars, around 20% in each volume,many of whom are not in fact archaeologists. Indeed only 3 out of 20 ofthe plant papers and 2 out of 27 of the animal papers can be said to beresearch directed by Africans, having indigenous African scholars asfirst authors. This demonstrates the insignificant role thatenvironmental archaeology currently plays amongst the emergingarchaeologies of the African continent. In part, this is due to thecontinued dominance of culture historical approaches and the examinationof material culture in African archaeology. As the discipline strugglesto sustain itself, it is difficult to justify diversification intoenvironmental archaeology. This tack is further discouraged by thecontinued association of archaeology with history in many tertiaryinstitutions and in government consciousness. But, as a number of theethnobotanical investigations here demonstrate, environmentalarchaeology is an avenue by which archaeology can establish a newrelevance in contemporary African society. Through its long-termtreatment of African agricultural and ecological systems, environmentalarchaeology can make a significant contribution to developing ruralcommunities. Ultimately, archaeology in Africa will have to choosewhether it wishes to remain the preserve of urban elites or whether itshould reach out to the impoverished rural majority. Reference VOIGT, E.A. 1983. Mapungubwe: an archaeozoological interpretationof an Iron Age community. Pretoria: Transvaal Museum. Transvaal MuseumMonograph 1. ANDREW REID, Institute of Archaeology The Institute of Archaeology is an academic department of University College London (UCL), in the United Kingdom. The Institute is located in a separate building at the north end of Gordon Square, Bloomsbury. , 31-34 Gordon Square, LondonWC1H 0PY, England. a.reid@ucl.ac.uk