The well-worn path.

The well-worn path. Any investigation of the origins of education for the libraryindustry brings to the surface old conflicts, issues and controversies.In these we can see the origins of many of the debates that surroundeducation for libraries today and to travel along the path with thosewho were present in the early establishment of library education tosearch for answers. Manuscript received February 2002 ********** ONE OF THE KEY DILEMMAS THAT HAS FACED THE LIBRARY INDUSTRY sincethe introduction of accredited accreditedrecognition by an appropriate authority that the performance of a particular institution has satisfied a prestated set of criteria.accredited herdscattle herds which have achieved a low level of reactors to, e.g. tertiary/VET education has been thedegree to which the two sectors of library employment converge. Thatthere is convergence has been evident even in the early years. In 1981John Levett wrote: ... there is a zone of activities in which both the professional and the paraprofessional operate: it is the width of this zone which will be of continuing interest ... (Levett 1981 p48) And indeed it has been of continuing interest, not only in theworkplace but also in the area of education and training. To do thisarea real justice requires an extensive analysis of historicaldevelopments, and contextualisation of these developments against abroad industrial, societal and education landscape, a task well beyondthe scope of this article. Some of the key issues can however still beraised for our examination and reflection. To take up these issues is to sense that you are following awell-worn path. They are not new. The many threads that make up the debatesurrounding the educational and professional spectrum have beendiscussed almost continuously since the advent of education for thelibrary industry began in a formal institutional sense early in the 20thcentury. It does seem particularly pertinent however, in the newmillennium, to take stock of where we now are with these issues,particularly in the light of the realigning of educational outcomes thathas occurred in the education sector both for librarianship and librarytechnician A library technician is a person who uses their clerical skills to assist librarians acquire, prepare and organize information. They also assist library patrons in finding information although this is usually part of their required duties. education over the last ten years. It is almost with a sense of embarrassment that I follow thiswell-worn path, yet the fact that these issues continue to be raisedover time only lends weight to the view that problems associated withtask and role definition for library staff and education for theindustry have not so far been resolved. This in turn leads to many otherquestions, but most broadly: Why not? The answer to this is not simpleand in the Australian context many of the issues are closely aligned tobroader historical, political and educational backdrops which arereflected in the nature of education, training and employment inAustralian society generally That these issues are pervasive and existacross a broad spectrum of professional disciplines is evident inGoozee's comment that: Throughout its history there has been a conflict between technical education and the other sectors of education, particularly universities, about what has been an appropriate role.(Goozee 1993, p7) Nor is lack of resolution of these issues due to lack of will oreffort on the part of all those concerned in the industry in Australia.Much thought, debate, time and effort have gone into constructingparadigms and structures within which the library industry can operate.And the debate has continued. In addition, beyond the particular Australian context there arethemes dealing with the nature of the library profession that appear tobe universal, and which persist. These include: the degree to whichlibrarianship is a profession; the level of education needed to be alibrarian; the changing focus of training/teaching for libraries and thevocational/educational divide. Broadly speaking Adv. 1. broadly speaking - without regard to specific details or exceptions; "he interprets the law broadly"broadly, generally, loosely debate falls into two main themes. These are: thenature and content of education for library work; and the role and tasksperformed by the various groups employed in the industry In essence,education: and employment, and how these are aligned. These two spheresare the mirror image of each other yet the sub-themes that exist in eachindicate how complex and how problematic resolution may be, As Peggy Johnson wrote of the American context: The roles of professionals and paraprofessionals seem clearly differentiated if we use abstract definitions. The problems become apparent when we try and apply these abstractions to the concrete reality of today's working library (Johnson 1996 p80) Ideally a close relationship should exist between the nature ofeducation for an industry, its educators and the practitioners. This isparticularly true for industry training in the VET sector because of thestrong emphasis placed on industry experience both for students andstaff within these programs. VET sector training has a clearlyestablished role to educate for industry. This has become anincreasingly dominant theme that has seen `the industrial relations industrial relationspl.n.Relations between the management of an industrial enterprise and its employees.industrial relationsNoun, plthe relations between management and workers andneeds of industry becoming the driving forces in the 1990s.'(Goozee 1993 p11) These issues have been problematic for the higher education sectoras it has grappled with a need to establish to what degree it should beresponsive to, and reflective of, the apparent desires of the industriesit educates for. A constant theme in university education today is thedebate surrounding a perceived drift from a generalist gen��er��al��istn.A physician whose practice is not oriented in a specific medical specialty but instead covers a variety of medical problems.generalistfocus topreoccupation with the needs of industry and specific vocational issues.One consequence of this shift is that vocational and universityeducation enter into a grey area contested by both. This is particularlydifficult for librarianship with its long-established associationbetween professional bodies and their role in the establishment andcontinuation of courses in the academy and the vocational/ practicalroots of the profession itself. Education Since the introduction of institutional education for the libraryindustry clear distinctions have been drawn (theoretically) between thenature of the education of library technicians and that of librarians.However, these distinctions are based on a number of premises that donot stand up to examination which is indicative of the problemsmentioned by Johnson previously. For librarians these are: * librarians working in libraries today have consistent or similarlevels of education including at least an undergraduate degree “First degree” redirects here. For the BBC television series, see First Degree.An undergraduate degree (sometimes called a first degree or simply a degree inlibrarianship. * in receiving that education librarians were taught the samethings and perceived their role and task in the same way. * what librarians learned was fundamentally different to that whichlibrary technicians needed to learn. * librarians needed to be educated to perform different tasks fromthe technician as their work would always be different. * librarians would have an understanding of the pedagogy andhistory of their industry. * that librarians have a clearly articulated and well definedconcept of the nature of their professional standing and what itentails. For technicians it was assumed that: * they would not have an undergraduate or postgraduate degree. * they would not need to manage a library * they would have no need for contextual education as their workwould be supervised (by librarians) and routine. * library technicians qualifications would be recognised in allsectors of employment. * they would never be asked to perform the same duties aslibrarians. For both groups: * that those outside the industry would understand the nature oftheir roles and the differences between them. * that the tasks they would perform would largely remain static. * that each sector would have a clear understanding of the natureof the other's work. * that the nature of their education would reflect the nature ofwork they found themselves doing. * those educating for the two sectors would be different from eachother in qualifications and experience and thus bring a differentexperience to their students. In fact, very few, if any of these basic assumptions hold up toscrutiny. Is it any wonder then that the industry still needs to come toterms with nature of its workers and the work they do? Many of the reasons for the weakness of these assumptions wouldappear to lie with the historical development of education and trainingfor the library industry and in the nature of the industry itself; notleast in an underlying uncertainty and lack of confidence at theacademic level about the professional nature of librarianship. This hasits roots in the very foundations of education for librarianship Education for librarianship is the term for the educational preparation for professional librarians. This varies widely in different countries. In the United States and Canada, it generally consists of a one- or two-year Masters degree program in library science, called variously. in thiscountry and elsewhere where early professionals were trained not in theuniversity but as `apprentices'. Even foundation educators such asMelvil Dewey and Keyes Metcalfe saw library education as a `systematicapprenticeship program on the trades model' (Wilson and Hermonson1998 p2) or as a `purely technical course, coming after the generaleducation has been completed' (Wilson and Hermonson 1998 p5). Further, most undergraduate courses in librarianship in Australiahave their beginnings in the technical colleges and colleges of advancededucation which have (largely by default) become part of the universitysector through the removal of the two-tier tertiary education Tertiary education, also referred to as third-stage, third level education, or higher education, is the educational level following the completion of a school providing a secondary education, such as a high school, secondary school, or gymnasium. system byJohn Dawkins John Sydney "Joe" Dawkins, AO (born 2 March 1947), Australian politician, was Treasurer in the Keating Labor government from December 1991 to December 1993.Dawkins was born in Perth, Western Australia, a member of Western Australia's wealthy landed elite. . A short survey of the original institutional contexts forlibrary education in Australia Education in Australia is primarily regulated by the individual state governments. Generally education in Australia follows the three-tier model which includes Primary education (Primary Schools), followed by Secondary education (Secondary Schools / High Schools) and Tertiary illustrates this. These included; RMIT RMIT Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology ,Ballarat Institute of Advanced Education, QIT QIT Quantum Information TheoryQIT Quality Improvement TeamQIT Queensland Institute of Technology (formerly Queensland University of Technology)QIT Quebec Iron & Titanium (Canada mining company), SAIT See AIT. , Riverina CAE (1) (Computer-Aided Engineering) Software that analyzes designs which have been created in the computer or that have been created elsewhere and entered into the computer. andWAIT. This reflects a model which Goozee saw as a pattern for manytechnical courses: The history of technical education in NSW in particular, is one where the top levels of technical education are continually creamed off by higher education institutions and subsequently upgraded to degrees, usually at the request of the relevant professional body. (Goozee1993 p7) Outside the professional circle, librarianship was not initiallyseen as an appropriate field for university education. Twoillustrations: the University of Melbourne's refusal to establish achair of librarianship to be funded by the Myer Foundation The Myer Foundation is a major Australian philanthropic organisation. Based on the legacy of Melbourne businessman Sidney Myer (1878-1934), the Foundation has been supported by three generations of Myer family members. in 1964(Bryan 1971 p15); and the Martin report which in part said `Anundergraduate university course in librarianship could be arranged butit is doubtful whether the study of the subject is appropriate for afirst degree' (Bryan 1971 p16). So negative was this report thatBryan believed that it not only subdued sub��due?tr.v. sub��dued, sub��du��ing, sub��dues1. To conquer and subjugate; vanquish. See Synonyms at defeat.2. To quiet or bring under control by physical force or persuasion; make tractable.3. the call for the establishmentof university-based schools of librarianship but `tempered theenthusiasm for the idea of schools [of librarianship] in any kind ofinstitution of tertiary education' (Bryan 1971 p16). To add to the array of opinions on the nature of the profession atthis time much debate occurred about the preferred sectoral context forcourses in librarianship, that is the original preference for universityschools or the then newly available option of CAEs. Inherent in thisdebate was discussion surrounding the concept of post-matriculationversus post-graduate qualifications as the preferred options; thesesentiments still resonate res��o��nate?v. res��o��nat��ed, res��o��nat��ing, res��o��natesv.intr.1. To exhibit or produce resonance or resonant effects.2. in the debates surrounding the professiontoday. Against this bubbling mix of conflicting options, opinions andpreferences we see the establishment of the first library techniciancourse in Australia at the Whitehorse College of TAFE TAFE(in Australia) Technical and Further Education under theleadership of Wes Young. Responsibility for these debates cannot lie solely with highereducation. In 1976 at a conference to establish guidelines for theeducation of library technicians the keynote address keynote addressn.An opening address, as at a political convention, that outlines the issues to be considered. Also called keynote speech.Noun 1. was given by NoelWatkins, the then assistant director of TAFE in Victoria. It isinteresting to note that in this keynote address Watkins felt itnecessary to note that he saw: `evidence to suggest to me that which Ithink is the essential nature of middle level education courses indanger of being lost in a sea of academic drift'. (Watkins, 1976p5) Even more strongly: `There is a very real danger that theobjectives of library technicians' courses, vis-a-vis theobjectives of the professional courses, are going to be confused andintermingled.' (Watkins, 1.976 p5). Another observation of interestis that library technician courses are often taught by librarians orteacher-librarians, not technicians. What impact does this have on thefocus of material taught in courses and the way it. is presented? Oftenthese trainers are in fact experienced educators with a professionalinterest in providing more than training and value context and depth ofunderstanding in the skills they teach. What impact does this have onthe nature and form of the learning process? These issues train thefocus on what is happening in the VET sector. Discussion provides a window to the more complex and universalthemes which have underpinned this debate historically, including suchconcepts as the nature of professionalism and librarianship'sstatus. Abbot points out that librarianship is often regarded insociological circles as a `semi-profession' whose members cannotcall on `knowledge as esoteric es��o��ter��ic?adj.1. a. Intended for or understood by only a particular group: an esoteric cult.See Synonyms at mysterious.b. as law and medicine `(1998 p5). Canlibrarians clearly call on the wisdom of their `Dead Germans'(Ostler 1995), that is, their philosophers and visionaries when definingwhat they do and what are, the basic tenets of their professions? Or hasthe: Oscillating debate, several decades long, about the proper nature of graduate education: should it be practical or theoretical, should it be training statesmen or scholars, humanistic bookmen or information scientists' (Wilson and Hermanson 1998) so consumed the profession that it can no longer define itself (orperhaps has moved beyond definition) as a single entity to whatRichardson predicted about the possible future of librarianship: ... I believe we will see significant areas of librarianship fragmented off and taken over by professionals of a different name, though in fact they may do no more than practice librarianship as we believe it to be. (Richardson 1971 p18) Issues such as `librarianship versus information science', theconcept of librarian versus information/knowledge manager, and even theuse of the term `library' in our library schools all go to theheart of the issues surrounding the definition of the profession, not intask-related terms but in terms of its philosophy and sense of being.One needs to have a clear sense of a profession to be able to drawdistinctions between it and para-professionals. Have we got this sense?This is vital not just for the profession but also for thepara-professional: `Unfortunately, librarians also influence the librarytechnician programs by having poor control of their own profession'(Davidson-Arnott & Key 1998). Are in fact these distinctionsrelevant, practical and viable in the current climate? The educational context we now find ourselves in suggests thatthere appears to have been an unacknowledged shift in the distinctionswe draw between the nature of educational outcomes for librarianship andtraining for library technicians. This is a shift that appears to haveoccurred largely undebated in the literature of the profession andcertainly not amongst the VET sector educators who find themselvesimplementing national agendas largely unconsulted, nor, for reasonswhich require examination, contributing to the debate. If we look at theliterature of the early 1970s and 1980s we can see a strong relationshipbetween the two sectors with library technician educators contributingto the development and definition of their programs and having strongbonds with their higher education counterparts and the professionalassociation. Does this still exist? In the past library technicians and librarians were seen to havecomplementary but distinct career paths. This informed the foundationprinciples of VET sector training--to Produce paraprofessional staff who supported professional librarians in the provision of information services. It was to be generalist, vocational and terminal, rather than a pre-professional program.(Smeaton 1983 p35) and the training to be `terminal courses preparing their studentsfor a separate and distinct career structure' (Radford 1977 p 147)or as Levett was to state: `The library technicians courses should becomplete vocational courses and not introductions to a professionalcourse.' (Levett 1981 p48) Does anyone believe this anymore, or asin the United States United States,officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. do we believe `... that roles and responsibilitiesof professional librarians and support staff are on the same continuumwith para-professionals moving ever towards the professional side...' (Johnson 1996 p280) With the advent of training packages and competency-based trainingit would appear that we now have a continuum of incremental stagesleading to a professional qualification so that the library technicianwould appear to be in effect a `low level' librarian. We speak interms of competency levels developing from the initial Certificate IIthrough to Advanced Diplomas with later competencies overlapping withthose of the tertiary sector. Are both sectors of education for the library industry (as wasasserted at the recent Hobart technicians conference `preparing workersfor entry into the same profession at different levels'? (Sanders2001) This would bring to reality the warning given by Noel Watkins,assistant director of TAFE Victoria, in 1976: There is a very real danger that the objectives of library technicians' courses, vis-a-vis the objectives of the professional courses, are going to be confused and intermingled ... (Watkins 1976 p5) And Levett who was to say: ... librarianship has the potential to produce considerable conflict in this regard given the wide range of paraprofessional duties conceded by the LAA ... (Levett p50) If it is now the case that these distinctions have disappeared dowe need to continue to draw them between professional andpara-professional education? Does this mean that all sectors of theeducation community are in fact learning/teaching the same skills but atdifferent levels so that no unique set of skills exists? Can theprofessional level be said to `exercise exclusive control over theknowledge base of a field' which Christine believed was the`hallmark of a profession' (Christine 1974 p201)? Training packages and national accreditation have meant that theVET sector of library education has a reasonable degree of coherence In optics, correlation functions are used to characterize the statistical and coherence properties of an electromagnetic field. The degree of coherence is the normalized correlation of electric fields. In its simplest form, termed nationally. There are those who would seek to lay any blame forconfusion over roles at the feet of those involved in the training oflibrary technicians (or who would in fact dispute the need for itsexistence at all). Yet the vision and parameters of this sector have, atleast within the TAFE colleges, been clearly defined and have a longhistory based on established and key principles which underpinvocational education. These include: education for the individual rather than to meet themanpower needs of industry; availability to all; flexibility in accessand delivery and that the vocations have an integrity in their own right(Watkins 1976 pp4-5) There is also a clearly articulated set of outcomesand a national expectation of quality. Can the professional level ofeducation demonstrate the same level of national coherence? What are the national philosophical underpinnings that driveeducation for professional level librarians and is there a commonpedagogy regarding the nature of the profession, what it entails and itsprinciples and focus? Does this defy de��fy?tr.v. de��fied, de��fy��ing, de��fies1. a. To oppose or resist with boldness and assurance: defied the blockade by sailing straight through it.b. institutional and nationalboundaries because it is understood to be the cornerstone upon which theprofession is built? Or has education for librarianship become soattenuated AttenuatedAlive but weakened; an attenuated microorganism can no longer produce disease.Mentioned in: Tuberculin Skin Testattenuatedhaving undergone a process of attenuation. and fragmented that no clear or unified pedagogy is possible?One only has to look for the word `library' when searching forinformation in this field to realise that even this defining point nolonger exists: who then can claim exclusive control over the knowledgebase? Employment Much thought was put into articulating and differentiating thenature of the tasks that librarians and library technicians wouldperform and the role each would undertake as evidenced by ALIA'sWork level guidelines: Role and task description (1985). Much of thiswork of definition was undertaken by the professional body and does notappear to have been taken up in education for these two groups. It isonly when these differences are clearly evidenced in our educationalmodel and articulated to future practitioners that the nature of thesedistinctions can be fully appreciated. Within the education and training process at both levels thereneeds to be discussion about the roles and expectations of both levels:if not, how can librarians and technicians really define theirrespective roles when they know so little of what the other does? Anyformal documentation of task and roles however has always failed to takeinto account the actual nature of working libraries and the realities ofstaffing and operating them, and the cultivated ignorance especiallyamongst employers, regarding those distinctions that the industry hasworked so hard to articulate. In one-person libraries the distinctionscannot be sustained because the lone librarian (or technician) mustperform duties across the spectrum regardless of level of qualification.For the reality is, and always has been that many librarians and librarytechnicians work in small or single-person libraries where the niceties ni��ce��ty?n. pl. ni��ce��ties1. The quality of showing or requiring careful, precise treatment: the nicety of a diplomatic exchange.2. in distinguishing between roles and tasks cannot apply. Turning its back on these realities, the sector however seemsdetermined to define itself largely in terms of the workplace asrepresented by large academic, state and national libraries. While theseare important, and definition is clearly necessary, both in terms of thenature of education for these two groups of professionals, and in theiremployment, industry itself appears to have become confused about thelevel at which these groups will operate. We know that workers enter theindustry with varying degrees of ability and skills and graduatelibrarians will often find themselves functioning in that grey areainhabited by both the professional and para-professional. What otherprofession allows its graduates to jointly inhabit in��hab��it?v. in��hab��it��ed, in��hab��it��ing, in��hab��itsv.tr.1. To live or reside in.2. To be present in; fill: Old childhood memories inhabit the attic. this space? Thedoctor, lawyer, teacher? These professions allow their newly qualified graduates littlestatus or responsibility within the confines con��fine?v. con��fined, con��fin��ing, con��finesv.tr.1. To keep within bounds; restrict: Please confine your remarks to the issues at hand.See Synonyms at limit. of the profession but theyand their work are still clearly differentiated from that of the nurse,the clerk or the teacher's aide. There often appears to be anunspoken agreement in larger libraries that the graduate qualificationrequires augmentation AUGMENTATION, old English law. The name of a court erected by Henry VIII., which was invested with the power of determining suits and controversies relating to monasteries and abbey lands. in the form of an `apprenticeship' servedalongside often senior technicians and other more experienced librariansthus unwittingly reflecting the origins of education for the professionin the workplace itself. How much awareness exists in the workplace regarding the steadyincrease in hours required for the technician to qualify? How many areaware that technicians study for two or more full-time-equivalent yearsoften on top of significant employment experience, and otherqualifications including, in many cases, a degree? Where then do we drawthe lines in the sand Lines in the Sand may refer to: Lines in the Sand (novel), a novel by Rhiannon Lassiter Lines in the Sand (House episode), an episode of the television series House Lines in the Sand ? The last few years have also seen the emergence of an increasinglyactive, vocal and professionally organised body of library technicians:it is involved not only in its own profession but is increasinglyrepresenting co-workers in relation to their education, industrialissues and professional development. This parallels the emergence ofother similar groups overseas as educational, social and industrialimperatives have made it necessary to revisit re��vis��it?tr.v. re��vis��it��ed, re��vis��it��ing, re��vis��itsTo visit again.n.A second or repeated visit.re old concerns anddemarcations and perhaps to re-imagine solutions. The last decade and particularly the last five years have presentedmany challenges to the industry. As we have changed and adapted to meetwider agendas in order to survive in a technological world and toredefine Verb 1. redefine - give a new or different definition to; "She redefined his duties"define, delimit, delimitate, delineate, specify - determine the essential quality of2. our position in a new information society those unresolvedissues from the past now rise up to meet us demanding an answer so wecan move forward along new paths rather than treading the one well worn. Bibliography Bryan, H (1972) `A decade of change: The Library Association ofAustralia and education for librarianship 1961-71.' AustralianLibrary Journal pp 15-20. Christine, E R (1974)`Paraprofessionals: plague or promise.'Australian Academic and Research Libraries (December): pp201-205. Davidson-Arnott, F and D Kay (1998) `Library Technician programs:skill-oriented paraprofessional paraprofessional1. a person who is specially trained in a particular field or occupation to assist a veterinarian.2. allied animal health professional.3. pertaining to a paraprofessional. education.' Library, trends 46 [3]:p540. Goozee, G. (1993) The development of TAFE in Australia: anhistorical perspective. Leabrook, NCVER NCVER National Centre for Vocational Education Research Ltd (Australia). Johnson, P (1996) `Managing change roles: professional andpara-professional staff in libraries' Managing Change in AcademicLibraries ed JJ Branin, Hawthorn hawthorn,any species of the genus Crataegus of the family Rosaceae (rose family), shrubs and trees widely distributed in north temperate climates and especially common in E North America. Press: pp79-99. Levett, J (1981) `Para-professional workers in four fields: acomparative study.' Australian Library Journal 30: pp47-54. Ostler, L and T C Dahlin (1995). `Library education: setting orrising sun?' Library Journal [7]: pp683-685. Radford, N (1977) `Redefining the LAA's role in education forlibrarianship.' Libraries in Society: 19th biennial biennial,plant requiring two years to complete its life cycle, as distinguished from an annual or a perennial. In the first year a biennial usually produces a rosette of leaves (e.g., the cabbage) and a fleshy root, which acts as a food reserve over the winter. conference ofthe Library Association of Australia, Hobart, LAA LAA Los Angeles Angels (baseball team)LAA Local Area Agreements (UK)LAA Latin American AssociationLAA Lifetime Achievement AwardLAA Locally Administered AddressLAA Library Association of Alberta . Richardson, W D (1971) `Of the making of librarians.' TheAustralian Library Journal 20: pp16-20. Sanders, Roy (2001) `It seems like an odyssey Odyssey(ŏd`ĭsē): see Homer. OdysseyHomer’s long, narrative poem centered on Odysseus. [Gk. Lit.: Odyssey]See : EpicOdyssey : upgrading to aprofessional qualification' paper presented at the 11th NationalLibrary Technicians Conference Hobart. Australian Library Journal, v51n[degrees]2, p153-159, http://www.alia.org.au/groups/libtnat/conferences/2001/papers/sanders.html Smeaton, H (1983) `Library technicians in Australia, past, presentand future.' Australasian College Libraries 1 [1]: pp34-37. Watkins Noel (1976). Guidelines for the education of librarytechnicians. Melbourne Library course vocational standing committee Wilson, A M (1998). `Educating and training library practitioners:a comparative history with trends and recommendations.' Library`Trends 46 [3]:p467 Mary Carroll The subject of this article may not satisfy the notability guideline for Biographies. If you are familiar with the subject matter, please expand or rewrite the article to establish its notability. has a background in teacher-librarianship, specialeducation and reference work prior to her current employment at VictoriaUniversity teaching library studies. She is currently undertaking a PhDin Applied Science at Charles Sturt University Charles Sturt University (CSU) is an Australian multi-campus university in New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory. It has campuses at Bathurst, Albury-Wodonga, Dubbo, Orange and Wagga Wagga. in which she is examiningthe degree of curriculum overlap in the education of technicians andlibrarians.