Wednesday, August 31, 2011

The role of women in Jubraka farming and household food security in Kadogli (South Kordofan State, Sudan).

The role of women in Jubraka farming and household food security in Kadogli (South Kordofan State, Sudan). Abstract: Field data for this exploratory, descriptive study was collected bystructured interviews from a sample of 100 women farmers in fourvillages around Kadogli during June and July 2005. The study attemptedto investigate the role of women in the traditional household farm(Jubraka) and household food security. The results showed that women, inall ages, successfully practice household farming (despite theadditional burden it places on them) producing different types of crops,which contribute substantially to the household food security. Cropsproduced were mainly cereals and vegetables for subsistence in mostcases. Jubraka area ranged between 1 and five feddans in most cases,with few ones measuring less than one feddan. The Jubraka is fullymanaged and run by women, who also have full control on its outputs andreturns. [TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII] Introduction Despite their great contribution to global food security, womenfarmers are frequently underestimated and overlooked in developmentstrategies (FAO, 2000; Arkesting, 1998). In the traditional rainfed sector in Sudan, both men and womenparticipate in all cultural practices, while women carry out most of theplanting, weeding and food processing (Ministry of Agriculture, 1989).Women Also bear almost the entire burden of household work includingwater and fuel wood collection and food processing and preparation (FAO,1994). Women's participation is significant in subsistence foodproduction for household consumption. In Western and Southern Sudan,women are traditionally responsible for household food security. This isbest demonstrated in the fact that women of this region control, operateand manage (Jubraka) or multicrop home gardens. Traditionally, theJubraka is a small area backyard garden that is attached to every familyhousing compound. Basically they are cultivated with the crop varietiesthat grow quickly and cover the daily need of food. such as sorghum,short season maize, okra and some other vegetables to break the foodgapwhich occurs every year from July to September. In some cases theJubraka provides space and fodder for farmyard animals (Ministry ofAgriculture, 1996; Elfadel, 2004). Women are responsible for providing the food for their families, ifnot by producing it, then by earning the income for its purchase. Foodsecurity has tended to emphasize access to food rather than mereavailability of food. It also explicitly incorporates the need for ahealthy diet complete with necessary vitamins and proteins rather thansimply sufficient calories. Despite the mounting evidence that Jubrakagardens yield surprisingly significant nutritional and economic benefitsto gardening households and societies, they have been ignored as alegitimate area of research. So there is a need to draw attention of thepolicy makers to the role that women play in the Jubraka system tosupport their families. Therefore, this study was an attempt toinvestigate and identify the role of women in household farming(Jubraka) and food security in Kadugli area, Sudan. Materials and Methods The Study Area Field data for this study was collected from rural Kadogli localityduring June and July 2005. Kadogli is one of the major cities in SouthKordofan State that is located in the Nuba Mountains one thousand andfive km (1005 km) Southwest of Khartoum city. It is connected to thesurrounding rural areas by paved roads and/or all-weather roads. The total population of Kadogli is 319,000 persons in the year 2005(personal contacts in Kadogli Locality).The main tribes are ancient Nubaand other minor ethnic groups including some Bagara, and Falata. Theaverage rainfall in the area reaches 24" per annum, mainly betweenJune and October (CARE, 1986). Rainfall is not evenly distributedbetween months and locations. Kadogli is a hilly area with some fertile plains between thosehills. The natural vegetation is poor savannah characterized by lightleaf trees and medium spear grass. The continuous source of water ishand pumps. Other sources include seasonal streams and water coursesbesides scattered water ponds that are fed by the rain. Sampling and Data Collection One hundred women farmers who practice backyard gardening (jubraka)were selected randomly from four villages in the study area. Womenfarmers from each of the four villages were proportionally assigned tothe sample. Systematic random sampling was then applied to select therespondents in each village. Data was collected by structured interviews face to face by thesecond author using one type of questionnaires (as most of therespondents were illiterate). Results and Discussion General Characteristics of Women Farmers Table 1 shows the distribution of respondents by frequency andpercentage for age, educational level, marital status and family size.Almost similar numbers of jubraka farmers were distributed between thedifferent age groups; except for the age group 51 to 60 years whichrecorded the highest percentage (29%). This shows that age is not abarrier in such farming activity as the area to be worked would notconstitute a limiting factor. Women find themselves committed to theirfamily food security and have to share this responsibility with otherfamily members regardless of their age. FAO (1998) reported that poorpeople practice this type of farming as a good strategy for foodsecurity regardless of their age, ethnic group or gender. The majority of the respondents (75%) were illiterate, whereasthose who had primary and secondary education represented 24% of thejubraka farmers. The low educational level can be better viewed withreference to the gender issue. Since the household cultivators aremostly women, it is expected that they will have low or no education. Afew decades ago women's education was considered not important andvalueless culturally and socially by society's norms and believes.This may also account for the lack of economic resources which at a timelead to the preference of males' education. The same trend ofhousehold farmers' education was reported by Faustino in Juba, inSouthern Sudan (2005). Married women farmers represented 79% of the study sample, whiledivorced and widowed ones presented 4% and 17%, respectively. All thesewomen were involved in maintaining food security and providing income tothe family because they either have children, or live in extendedfamilies within the same household. Married women are expected to bemore involved in household food production as a strategy to cut down thefamily budget and expenditure on some food items on one hand, or to gainmore cash income by selling part of their products on the other.Divorced and widowed individuals participate in household foodproduction as part of their commitment towards their families. Almost half of the families (49%) have a number of family membersbetween 6 and 10 which is considered medium to high. Those who have 5members and less represented 40% of the families. Large families (11 to15) members represented 11% of the families. Small families are notlikely to be found in Kadogli as most of the families are extended. Bigfamilies motivate household food production for food security as well asfor financial purposes. This result is in accordance with FAOpresentation (2000). Jubraka Type, Area and Production purposes: Unlike the general classification of home gardens (front andbackyard gardens), the majority of home gardens (Jubrakas), in Kadogli(60%) surround the houses. This is due to the fact that most of thehouses in Kadogli do not have front or backyards, if they have any atall. House orientation and buildings alignment decide the type of homegardens. However, front and backyard gardens represented 11% and 29%,respectively. Around the house Jubraka can be easily managed and thearea under cultivation could be larger which will consequently reflecton more production. In general, farm size ranged between less than one feddan (1 feddan= 0.24 ha) and five feddans. This reflects the limited access to land inhome gardening. The relatively small size is mainly due to the nature ofthis type of production (household level). The majority of cultivators(77%) farmed land less than two feddans. The area available for farmingis governed by the individuals' capacity, size of residential areaand the available space in the vicinity of the housing compound.Respondents who had relatively larger area than others (more than twofeddans) represented 23% of the sample. Larger farming areas are becausewomen live in the out skirts of the village; hence they have vast areabehind their houses that can be farmed. The reason behind this relatesto the dense- unorganized nature of Nuba Mountains villages. The distribution of soils in the area is complex. The nature ofsoils corresponds more or less with their location in respect to hills,foot slopes and plains. All of which, except for the dark crackingclays, have limiting physical and or chemical properties that renderthem low for agricultural potential in crop farming. The findings showthat the soil is sandy for 47%; loamy for 31% and clay for 22%. Soiltype decisively affects the types of crops grown, their productivity andthe farm size. The majority of women farmers (71%) grow cereals and vegetables forsubsistence and marketing, while the rest (29%) grow cereals forsubsistence only. This shows that household farming (Jubraka) increasedthe quantity of food availability which may reduce the food insecurityby providing access to food for the households, or by providing theincome needed to purchase that food. All women practice householdfarming as a coping strategy for crops delay to fill the gap till theharvesting time of the main rainfed farms. However, this result showsthe importance of household farming in family diet and food security asmentioned by FAO (1998). Faustino (2005) reported closer results inJuba. All the women who sell part of their products have full control onits selling process and on its returns. This shows that women areempowered in this aspect, unlike many other examples in the country andeven iv. the region. Crops Produced and Period of Consumption Distribution of women farmers by types of crops produced is shownin Table 3. All farmers cultivate cereals (sorghum, millet and maize)which are the main staple food and most important crops to householdscropping plans in the study area. It is worth mentioning here that thevarieties grown are early maturing short season ones. Vegetables (bulbsand green leafy vegetables) were produced by 98% of the women. The shortseason and low water requirements motivate farmers to produce these typeof crops. The surplus of these vegetables is sold in the market and ithas high return that can cover other needs of the family. On the otherhand, cash crops (Karkadi and groundnuts) are grown by most farmers(95%), though in small areas. This is probably to assist in the familybudget after selling. The types of crops grown show a widediversification in terms of nutritive value. This adds to the goodnourishment of these households as mentioned by FAO (2000). More than half of the farmers (54%) consume their product in aperiod ranging between 5 and 7 months (Table 3). This reflects theimportance of Jubraka production especially to those who don'tpractice rainfed agriculture. The other 46% are families that consumetheir production in periods between 1 to 4 months. This shows thathousehold farming contributes substantially to family budget by cuttingdown sizable portions of the family expenditure on food. The length ofthe period during which the product is consumed depend on the yield,family size and the quantity of the sold product. Apparently, thejubraka production would suffice for a short period; yet this adds muchto "sub-subsistence" rather than a "subsistence"level of agriculture. During the-past two decades the traditionalsubsistence "rainfed" sub-sector shifted to be asub-subsistence farming sector due to the deterioration in soilfertility and rainfall scarcity. In such a situation, household farmingwould supplement the "bildat"* production and secure familiesagainst any uncertainties, delays and/or failure in the production. Time Consumed in Farming and Domestic Activities (1) Most of women farmers (74%) spend from one to three hours infarming daily; while the rest (26%) spend less than one hour in farming(Table 4). The time spent in farming is proportional to the areacultivated, crops grown and soil type. However, this in addition to thetime consumed in domestic activities will place pressure on women'stime budget and burdens. Regarding the time consumed in household activities, the resultsshow that the time taken for water fetching ranged between 1-3 hours forthe majority of the farmers (57%), while those who spent 4-6 hoursconstituted (43%). The time spent in water fetching is related to thedistance between the house and the water source. Two farmers did notcollect water; they just bought it from water vendors at their doorstep. The time consumed in fire wood gathering was from 1-5 hours for 72%of the women and from 6-12 hours for 28% of them. Seven women were notincluded in the frequency calculations as fire wood was brought to themby other people. Women took longer time in wood gathering because of thefar distance between the village and the mountain. Deforestation anddesertification lead to increasing the women's time spent ingathering fuel wood (FAO 2004). Domestic activities (cooking, cleaning, and child care) are underwomen's responsibility normally. This took between 4-6 h/day for91% of the women farmers, while for the rest (9%) it took from one tothree hours. On average, most of the women spent 9 hours daily infarming, domestic activities and water and fuel wood fetching, while therest spent more than this. The fact that women have to participate insome operations in large scale farming "bildat" with men drawsattention to the burdens falling on their back. Moser (1993) illustratedsimilar trends. Assistance Received by Women in Farming and Domestic Activities Most of the women farmers (83%) get assistance in Jubraka farming(Table 5). They were assisted by their husbands and children and in somecases by their female neighbors. The assistance of husbands is expectedonly when men have spare time that can be utilized in other activities. In addition to the activities related to agriculture, women havedomestic work and other income generating activities. Women can receivesome assistance from their daughters and sisters to minimize the burdenon their back mainly in (cooking, fetching water, collection of firewood and other. works). More than half of the women (57%) were assistedby their daughters and sisters in all domestic activities; whileslightly more than two fifths (43%) of them did not receive anyassistance, probably because they live in nuclear families and theirdaughters are still too young to work. Fig. 1 shows that the majority of women farmers (92%) think thefarming in fubraka adds more burden to them. This is due to the factthat some of them do not receive any assistance in farming and in otherhome responsibilities (42%). The second reason was the drudgery offarming work (39%). Farming as an additional job was the reason for 6.0%of the women. Those who had a positive perception towards farming wereeither assisted fully in farming (3%), or they farm in small plots (5%). [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] Conclusion Based on the findings of this study the following conclusions aredrawn: --Kadogli women successfully practice household farming producingdifferent types of crops. --The household farm (Jubraka) is fully managed and run by women,who also have full control on its returns. --The Jubraka products contribute substantially to the householdfood security in Kadogli; either by providing food stuff, or byproviding the money needed to -purchase it. --In most cases, Jubraka farming represents an additional burden tothe women. However, they still practice it as part of their heritage. References: --Arkesting, M. (1998). Women and Food Security: Overview andsituation in China. Resource Center for Urban Agriculture and Forestry(RUAF). WWW.ruaf.org. --CARE (1986). Re-establishment of Household Garden. CAREInternational Organization, Kadogli, South Kordofan. --El Fadil. W. (2004). Sudan Gender Profile (March 2004). SudanGender National office. Khartoum, Sudan. --FAO (1994). Fact sheet, Sudan. Women Agriculture and RuralDevelopment. World Bank 1994. --FAO (1998). Issues in Urban Agriculture. FAO. Spotlight Magazine.The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.http://www.fao.org. --FAO (2000). Issues in Gender and Agriculture. FAO. SpotlightMagazine. http://www.fao.org. --FAO (2004). Women and Agricultural Production, SpotlightMagazine. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.http://www.fao.org. --Faustino. K, (2005). Urban Agriculture and Household FoodSecurity. Unpublished B. Sc. thesis. School of Rural Extension,Education and Development, Ahfad University for Women, Omdurman-Sudan. --Ministry of Agriculture (1989). Based line survey of thetraditional rainfed sector. Khartoum, Sudan. --Ministry of Agriculture (1996). Ten year plan of action, women inAgriculture and food security in Sudan. Khartoum. --Mosar. R. (1993). Urban Agriculture in Africa Conference. Facultyfor agriculture and gardening, Sociology. Humboldt University-Berlin. (1) * Bildat are the rainfed farms outside the villages. Theirareas are generally larger than the Jubrakas and are separated mainly bymen to produce food and cash crops. Elsamawal Khalil Makki and Belgis Attia Gebreel, School of RuralExtension, Education and Development, Ahfad University for Women,Omdurman, Sudan.Table 1: Frequency distribution and percentages of Jubraka Farmersby General CharacteristicsAge Educational LevelAge F % Educational F %groups Levels20 to 30 15 15 Illiterate 75 75%years31 to 40 17 17 Khalwa 1 1%years41 to 50 19 19 Primary 22 22%years51 to 60 29 29 Secondary 2 2%years61 years 20 20 University 0 0and aboveTotal 100 100 Total 100 100Marital Status Family SizeMarital F % Family F %Status SizeSingle 0 0 > 3 0 0Married 79 79% 3-5 40 40%Divorced 4 4% 6 -10 49 49%Widowed 17 17% 11-15 11 11%Separated 0 0 More than 0 0 15Total 100 100 Total 100 100Source: Field Survey (June, 2005)Table 2: Frequency distribution and percentages of Jubraka Farmersby Jubraka Type, Area, Soil Type and Production PurposeJubraka Type Jubraka aeaType F % Area F %Front Yard 11 11% < 1 Fed 34 34%Back yard 29 29% 1-2 43 43% FedAround 60 60% 2.1-5 23 23%the house FedTotal 100 100% Total 100 100Soil Type Production PurposeSoil F % Purpose F %Clay 22 22% Subsistence 29 29Sandy 47 47% marketing 0 0Loamy 31 31% Subsistence 71 71 and marketTotal 100 100% Total 100 100%Source: Field Survey (June, 2005)Table 3: Frequency distribution and percentages of Jubraka Farmersby Crops Produced in the Jubraka and Period of ConsumptionCereals VegetablesCategory F % Category F %Yes 100 100% Yes 98 98%No 0 0% No 2 2%Total 100 100% Total 100 100Cash Crops Period of ConsumptionCategory F % Period F %Yes 95 95% 1-4 months 46 46No 5 5% 5-7 months 54 54Total 100 100% Total 100 100%Source: Field Survey (June, 2005)Table 4: Frequency distribution and percentages of JubrakaFarmers by Time consumed by Women Farmers in Farming andDomestic ActivitiesFarming activities time Firewood Collection timeTime F % Time F %> 1 hour 26 26 1-5 (h) 67 721-3 hours 74 74 6-12 (h) 26 28Total 100 100 Total 93 100Domestic activities time Water collection timeTime F % Time F1-3 (h) 9 9.1 1-3 (h) 57 58.14-6 (h) 90 90.9 4-6 (h) 41 41.9Total 100 100 Total 98 100Source: Field Survey (June, 2005)Table 5: Frequency distribution and percentages ofJubraka Farmers by Assistance Received by Women in Farmingand Domestic ActivitiesAssistance Received Assistance Receivedin Farming Activities in Domestic ActivitiesCategory F % Category F %Yes 83 83 Yes 57 57No 17 17 No 43 43Total 100 100 Total 100 100Source: Field Survey (June, 2005)

The rolling stones of Newgrange.

The rolling stones of Newgrange. In his paper 'Newgrange--a view from the platform'Gabriel Cooney accepts that the quartz/ granite layer at Newgrange wasnever part of a wall; instead it constituted a structure--aplatform--placed on the ground. This new view was first put forward byFlemming Kaul in 1995 and developed in 2004, in a paper that denouncedthe hideous white wall of O'Kelly's reconstruction (Eriksen2004). But if there was no wall, one has to explain the astonishing a��ston��ish?tr.v. as��ton��ished, as��ton��ish��ing, as��ton��ish��esTo fill with sudden wonder or amazement. See Synonyms at surprise. masses of mound-fill at Newgrange. The mound-fill, mainly consisting ofhead-size stones, covered and hid the passage-grave and its kerbstonesuntil the discovery of the passage-grave in 1699. In front of thekerbstones there was--before Michael O'Kelly's excavation--alot of 'loose stones', which he explained as slip from themound. Put them back, and you have an enormous mound, the fill of which,according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. O'Kelly, can only be kept in place by an enormouswall. Gabriel Cooney does not follow this line. Instead he complementsand develops the idea of the platform and its continued use through theNeolithic and the Beaker beaker/beak��er/ (bek��er) a glass cup, usually with a lip for pouring, used by chemists and pharmacists. beakera round laboratory vessel of various materials, usually with parallel sides and often with a pouring spout. period. But the platform and the mound belongto the same structure: Newgrange. If there was never a retaining wallthe great mass of stones from the mound fill which covered thekerbstones and the platform of quartz/granite are an enigma. The only reasonable explanation is that Newgrange is a multi-periodmound, and the indications for this are strong (Eriksen 2004). If youstudy the long section of O'Kelly's excavation-trench 10m eastof the entrance (O'Kelly 1982: 69), you can distinguish four tofive possible phases with three corresponding vegetation layers (Eriksen2004: Fig. 11). In short, there was first a passage-tomb, which may haveexpanded once or twice, ending up with the quartz/granite layer in frontof it. Later in prehistory--perhaps in the Beaker period--the mound withthe passage tomb and the quartz/granite layer in front of it wasincorporated and hidden by a new mound. The platform dealt with byGabriel Cooney moved outwards following the new limit of the mound. Youcould no longer see the quartz-granite platform. The entrance to thepassage-grave became and remained closed and hidden until three hundredyears ago, and therefore O'Kelly to his great surprise did not findartefacts in the chamber or passage later in date than the first use ofthe passage-grave (O'Kelly 1982: 126). When reading the structure of cairns, i.e. mounds with a filling ofstones, like Newgrange, there is always a supposition of collapse and apredilection for rolling stones. In fact, if the mound is proportionate,the stones did not roll or slide under normal circumstances, becausethey locked each other so they were kept in place. This is shown by morethan 5000 years old 'experimentations' at the undisturbedLoughcrew cairn cairn,pile of stones, usually conical in shape, raised as a landmark or a memorial. In prehistoric times it was usually erected over a burial. A barrow is sometimes called a cairn. T and at the unspoiled parts of Dowth, though its sideis very steep. The cairn-stones still lie in situ In place. When something is "in situ," it is in its original location. and have not slid downand covered the kerbstones. The point is that the so-called 'slip' supposed todeposit stones in front of the kerbstones at Newgrange, is actuallymound-fill in situ from a time in prehistory prehistory,period of human evolution before writing was invented and records kept. The term was coined by Daniel Wilson in 1851. It is followed by protohistory, the period for which we have some records but must still rely largely on archaeological evidence to when Newgrange was still inuse, but its passage-tomb was no longer visible. The shape of the moundwas dramatically altered when the new monument builders provided it withat flat top--a mini Irish Silbury Hill Silbury Hill (grid reference SU100685), part of the complex of Neolithic monuments around Avebury in the English county of Wiltshire (which includes the West Kennet Long Barrow), is the tallest prehistoric man-made mound in Europe[1] and one of the world's largest. . They had, like theirpredecessors, their own Newgrange, as we have ours today--unfortunately! References ERIKSEN, P. 2004. Newgrange og den hvide mur. KUML 2004: 45-77.(With a summary in English). O'KELLY, M.J. 1982. Newgrange: Archaeology, Art and Legend.London: Thames & Hudson. Palle Eriksen, Department of Archaeology, Ringkobing Museum,Kongevejen 1, 6950 Ringkobing, Denmark (Email: pe@ringmus.dk)

The rose theatre, London: the state of knowledge and what we still need to know.

The rose theatre, London: the state of knowledge and what we still need to know. "Can this cockpit hold The vasty vast��y?adj. vast��i��er, vast��i��est ArchaicVast. fields of France? Or may wecram Within this wooden O the very casques That did afright the air atAgincourt?" Henry V, prologue Introduction The site of The Rose playhouse, first uncovered fifteen years ago,has become an extraordinary crossroads. It is now a meeting-place foractors, architects, theatre designers and historians of early theatre, amultitude of enthusiasts for Shakespeare and Marlowe, and of course thearchaeologists who recorded the remains for the Museum of LondonArchaeology Service The Museum of London Archaeology Service (MoLAS) is a Registered Archaeological Organisation (RAO) with the Institute of Field Archaeologists (IFA) and is a self-financing part of the Museum of London, providing a wide range of professional archaeological services to clients in (MoLAS MoLAS Museum of London Archaeology Service ), Julian Bowsher and Simon Blatherwick. Keydesigners of the replica of the neighbouring Globe theatre, namely thearchitect, Jon Greenfield and Peter McCurdy, the master carpenter, andhistorians such as John Orrell and Andrew Gurr Andrew John Gurr (born December 23, 1936) is a contemporary literary scholar who specializes in William Shakespeare and English Renaissance theatre.Born in Leicester, Gurr was raised in New Zealand, and educated at the University of Auckland and at Cambridge University. have converged on thearchaeologists and their evidence in the hope of learning more about thetheatre where almost all of Marlowe's and at least two ofShakespeare's plays William Shakespeare's plays have the reputation of being among the greatest in the English language and in Western literature. His plays are traditionally divided into the genres of tragedy, history, and comedy. were staged (1 Henry VI and Titus Andronicus Titus Andronicusexacts revenge for crimes against his family. [Br. Lit.: Titus Andronicus]See : Vengeance ),and possibly where Shakespeare himself acted. We present here a summary of what we have gleaned from a study ofthe MoLAS records of the 1989 dig, which have become available in thelast two years. The new deductions mark out The Rose as a site thatdeserves to be celebrated as more than just the third of London'sElizabethan playhouses; it contained features which throw light on thedevelopment of theatre-building during one of the greatest periods ofplay-writing the world has known. The Rose in documents First constructed in 1587 by a new entrepreneur, Philip Henslowe Philip Henslowe (ca. 1550 - January 6, 1616) was an Elizabethan theatrical entrepreneur and impresario. Henslowe's modern reputation rests on the survival of his Diary, which is a primary source for information about the theatrical world of Renaissance London. ,ten years after the first two of London's open-air theatres werebuilt, The Rose was enlarged five years later, and two years after thatin 1594 it became one of the only two theatres to be officially licensedfor use in London. The other, the Theatre in Shoreditch, was pulled downin 1599 and reconstructed as The Globe only fifty yards from The Rose.The two sites in Southwark's Park Street are the only fragments sofar to be uncovered of the playhouses that Shakespeare and Marlowe used.That gives the archaeological sites their unique status, though it doesnot say much for London's historical priorities that we have beenable to do so little up to now towards a thorough analysis of what theyhave to tell us about Shakespeare's workplaces. The Rose is central to the study of Elizabethan play-going not onlybecause all the foundations have survived, but because it featuresprominently in the Henslowe papers, housed in Dulwich College. They area unique day-by-day record of what plays were staged at The Rose andwhat money they brought in between 1592 and 1597, together withinventories of the costumes and properties The Rose actors used. Thereare also some accounts about rebuilding work in 1592 and 1595. But thesedocuments tell us very little about the first five years of theplayhouse from 1587. Up to 1989, when the remains were first uncovered and partlyanalysed, the only information about the shape of The Rose was a pair ofsketches published on the same engraving in 1600 by John Norden John Norden (1548- 1625) was an English topographer, He was the first Englishman who designed a complete series of county histories and geographies. His earliest known work of importance was the Speculum Britanniae, first part Middlesex (1593); the MS. , aLondoner. He drew a panorama of London from the tower of SouthwarkCathedral Southwark Cathedral or The Cathedral and Collegiate Church of St Saviour and St Mary Overie, Southwark, London, lies on the south bank of the River Thames close to London Bridge.It is the mother church of the Anglican Diocese of Southwark. (as Wenceslas Hollar V��clav Hollar (IPA: [ˈva:tslaf ˈɦolar]), known in England as Wenceslaus Hollar or sometimes Wenzel (July 13, 1607 - March 25, 1677), was a Bohemian etcher. later and more famously did for his'Long View' of London). Norden's main design (Figure 1)showed the playhouse as six-sided, but an inset drawing (Figure 2) madeit round and called it not the Rose but The "Stare",presumably pre��sum��a��ble?adj.That can be presumed or taken for granted; reasonable as a supposition: presumable causes of the disaster. the result of a mistake from thinking the Tudor rose on itsflag was a star. Norden was mistaken about the six sides too, since thetheatre's footprint dug out in 1989 showed it had fourteen. [FIGURES 1-2 OMITTED] If the documents are unspecific Adj. 1. unspecific - not detailed or specific; "a broad rule"; "the broad outlines of the plan"; "felt an unspecific dread"broadgeneral - applying to all or most members of a category or group; "the general public"; "general assistance"; "a general rule"; about the early form of The Rose,there are nevertheless other references which will prove useful in theinterpretation of the archaeological remains. Philip Henslowe, theRose's financier, was famous for many theatre-related andprofitable activities over the years. One of them was a contract he tookout in August 1614, less than a month after the destruction of thenearby Globe by fire, to build a multi-purpose arena, for baiting bearsevery Thursday (Henslowe had become Master of the King's Bears in1604), and to stage plays on every other day of the week. Before 1587London's only bear-baiting house was in the same area by the RiverThames (Figure 3), and Henslowe must have found it enticing to watch thecrowds flocking to the shows there. His later building of 1614, which hecalled, ironically as it turned out, The Hope, in fact proved deeplyunpopular with the actors because of the stench from the bears andhundreds of dogs in their kennels next to the new playhouse. Alter lessthan one year as a dual-purpose venue the actors fled and the newstructure frustrated Henslowe's expectations by turning into just abear garden. The name survives in the alley off Park Street called BearGarden, and Wenceslas Hollar in his Long View just called it abear-baiting house, though his engraver did manage to reverse the titlesof the two adjacent amphitheatres, misnaming one the beere baitingh.' and the other 'the Globe'. In Southwark bear-baitinghad preceded play-acting as the local spectacle, and the two couldtheoretically be combined. [FIGURE 3 OMITTED] The archaeology of The Rose The discovery of The Rose's foundations in February 1989caused enormous excitement, and enormous trouble for the developmentcompany who had the job of building a ten-storey office block (now RoseCourt) over it. The diggers Diggers,members of a small English religio-economic movement (fl. 1649–50), so called because they attempted to dig (i.e., cultivate) the wastelands. They were an offshoot of the more important group of Puritan extremists known as the Levelers. were pulled off the site in April afteruncovering only a portion of the remains, and had no time for thethorough analytical excavation that was needed (see Orrell & Gurr,1989b). Since then the site has been kept in a reasonable state ofpreservation by English Heritage English Heritage is a non-departmental public body of the United Kingdom government (Department for Culture, Media and Sport) with a broad remit of managing the historic environment of England. It was set up under the terms of the National Heritage Act 1983. , covered in sand, concrete and water inwhat was intended to be Rose Court's underground carpark. Itsbenign Fate and its availability for further discoveries contrasts withThe Globe site, 50 yards away. Ten per cent of that playhouse wasuncovered in October 1989, but the remains are now sealed in undercobblestones, with no likelihood of any further excavation in theforeseeable future. The 1989 excavation of The Rose was carried out by two separatearchaeological units: the Museum of London's Department of GreaterLondon Archaeology Unit (formerly MoLAS) and English Heritage'sCentral Unit. Both their data sets have recently been combined into asingle digital file, so that the more difficult parts of the site,particularly the fragmented southern portion, can now be examined incontext with the rest of the auditorium more easily. In 1998 JulianBowsher published a book about the findings, The Rose Theatre: anarchaeologic discovery. It was written as the first draft of anarchaeological interpretation in response to the public interest, andwas not based oil the usual 'post excavation analysis', whichMoLAS have only just started. It cites many of the questions theabbreviated dig left open. Now that Jon Greenfield and Peter McCurdyhave subjected the archive to careful and exhaustive new scrutiny, theirfindings do not just raise flesh questions about the design but they putthe whole building into a new perspective. This flesh perspective raisesmore questions, which can only be answered by further analysis of thesite itself. The case for uncovering The Rose again in order to makepossible a comprehensive archaeological and historical analytical recordhas become imperative. The story so far--the ground plan The foundations of the early playhouses were built upwards from astone-filled trench, on which were set the brick walls which took thewooden groundsills of the playhouse's framing timbers. Revisitingthe layout of The Rose's stones with a fresh approach hassignificantly refined our understanding of the remains. We now have ageometry that appears to make sense of the archaeological record The archaeological record is a term used in archaeology to denote all archaeological evidence, including the physical remains of past human activities which archaeologists seek out and record in an attempt to analyze and reconstruct the past. . Byconcentrating the new investigation on the stones that were uncoveredclosest to the surface, the ones, it could be argued, that mostreflected Griggs's superstructure superstructure/su��per��struc��ture/ (soo��per-struk?chur) the overlying or visible portion of a structure. su��per��struc��turen.A structure above the surface. and not his rough-laid, massmasonry foundations, we found the riddle we faced could be reduced to asmall number of accurately positioned points. These results were fedback to see how they fitted the more general archaeological record inthe better and more coherent data set that is now available. One of the most obvious of the familiar questions is why and howdid the builder, John Griggs, give the theatre fourteen sides? (Figure4) It was not laid out as a perfectly regular polygon polygon,closed plane figure bounded by straight line segments as sides. A polygon is convex if any two points inside the polygon can be connected by a line segment that does not intersect any side. If a side is intersected, the polygon is called concave. , because the sidenearest Maiden Lane (now Park Street) is quite a lot broader than theother sides of the polygon. It may have been made wider because that waswhere the auditorium's principal entrance was, bringing people into face the stage on the opposite northern flank. But the stage is notlocated precisely opposite that side, and in any case there are doubtsabout whether the extra-large side of the polygon was the onlyentranceway for the audience. The many possible explanations why thestage was built off-centre, as were both the first one built in 1587 or1588 and the rebuilding in 1592, leave an enigma that only a detailedre-scrutiny of the evidence on the ground and a deeper dig can explain. [FIGURE 4 OMITTED] In parallel with our study of the records, we looked at theknowledge of Cartesian geometry that was current in 1587 and would havebeen used by John Griggs. This offered a neat solution to the initiallybaffling baf��fle?tr.v. baf��fled, baf��fling, baf��fles1. To frustrate or check (a person) as by confusing or perplexing; stymie.2. To impede the force or movement of.n.1. discovery that the Rose footprint is based on the unexpectedgeometry of a fourteen-sided figure. Albrecht Durer in 1520 published amethod for dividing a circle into seven equal parts, a method that wouldcertainly have been known to Griggs (Figure 5). It is not amathematically perfect method, but the inaccuracies in it are verysmall. It is easy to do, and was useful to practitioners such ascarpenters and painters. Looking at the archaeological record of thewhole footprint, Jon Greenfield worked out a solution to the question ofthe fourteen sides by using the standard surveyor's measure of onerod, or sixteen feet six inches. A rod triangulated makes the rightnumber of angles, and creates a seven-sided structure which can easilybe doubled up by marking a circle linking the seven points and thenbisecting each side and extrapolating the halfway point out to the edgeof the circle. Joining the fourteen points with straight lines createsthe fourteen sides. The resultant ground-plan has exactly the diameteridentified by MoLAS at the Rose, seventy-two feet. [FIGURE 5 OMITTED] The discovery that the inner ring of The Rose is based on thediagonal of a square of one rod (16 feet six inches), the commonland-surveying measure of the time, and that an equally simple geometrycan extend the measure to establish the outer ring of The Rose, came tous as a 'Eureka!' It means that on paper, with just onemeasurement to represent a rod, used only once, the whole of The Rosecan be set out with just a pair of compasses (standard in an Elizabethancarpenter's tool kit) and a straight edge. Or, by extension, thewhole of the building can be set out in pegs on the ground using onesurveyor's rod for the first measurement and several string lines.The correspondence between these two methods is astounding. The developing superstructure A commission from Shakespeare & Company, theMassachusetts-based theatre group that plans to reconstruct The Rose,encouraged us to return to the records and search for the elements ofthe original building of 1587. Fortunately MoLAS could extract theprimary features from their records, but the result contained somesurprises. Figure 6 summarises the structural sequence so Far deducedfrom the archaeological evidence, from its hypothetical earliest plan(A) in 1587 to the rebuilding of 1592 (D). It seems that the firstbuilding was positioned to exploit a natural hollow in the ground. Theyard has a slight dish, and features a plain slope downwards to thenorth, over which a permanent stage was, at some time, introduced. Thissuggested the possibility that the first building did not actually havea stage, an idea for which there was some corroboration from the groundlevels. When we related the yard levels inside the 'wooden O'with those oil the ground outside and plotted the most likely heights ofthe brick footings and timber cills, we found a surprising difference inheight (Figure 7). The most pronounced effect is to the north, where thefloor level of the lowest gallery would have been 4 feet 10 inches abovethe yard, and if we add the height of the balustrade around the front ofthe gallery we find a sheer wall over seven feet high. At that time theaverage height of a man was only five feet six inches. Why did Griggsset the first gallery so high? A possible explanation seems to be thatThe Rose was first constructed as a bear-baiting house, or as adual-purpose theatre and baiting house, and that its designer expectedthat there would be fierce animals in the yard, bears and bulls, beingbaited by dogs. Of course, if animals were being baited in the yardthere would have been no standing audience there, and no stage. [FIGURES 6-7 OMITTED] Examination of the site drainage, and particularly of a magnificentbox drain (Arch.) a drain constructed with upright sides, and with flat top and bottom.See under Box, Counter.See also: Box Drain unearthed Unearthed is the name of a Triple J project to find and "dig up" (hence the name) hidden talent in regional Australia.Unearthed has had three incarnations - they first visited each region of Australia where Triple J had a transmitter - 41 regions in all. in the northern segment behind the stage to carrywater away from what became the stage tiring house or dressing room,reinforces our conclusion that The Rose was first built without a stage.Figure 8 shows how well the yard was drained, through this box drain andinto the northern boundary ditch if the yard is imagined without astage. The addition of a stage, perhaps put in expediently but certainlythoughtlessly, disrupted the pre-established course of the rainwaterrun-off from the yard (Figure 6b). No wonder the area in front of thestage became a churned up muddy puddle and was eventually eroded away,as the mortar surfacing shows. [FIGURE 8 OMITTED] After the initial construction of the arena in 1587, the stagesappear to have been developed in a very different way to the galleriesof the auditorium, perhaps by someone other than Griggs. If Hensloweinitially built The Rose as a simple circular (or 'conjoined')set of standings for shows of dancing, displays of combat juggling andanimal baiting (see Figure 6a) he soon responded to the demands of hisaudience and built a stage. His first attempt would almost certainlyhave been to place the stage on the polygon's axis. This, however,had the great disadvantage that it could only have accommodated twostage entry doors, because a central post would have occupied the'discovery' position (see Figure 6b) which had to be wideenough open to admit major actor-entries, including perhaps the chariotpulled by four kings on which Tamburlaine made his entrance. Could ithave been that the actors, unable to make the best use of such a stage,demanded a central opening so that they could do productions more likethe ones that Burbage was putting on at the Theatre across the river? Ifso, the easiest way of modifying the stage to give a central openingwould have been to twist it just enough to make it miss the centralpost. This is a nice thought, because that way the stage ends up inexactly the skew (1) The misalignment of a document or punch card in the feed tray or hopper that prohibits it from being scanned or read properly.(2) In facsimile, the difference in rectangularity between the received and transmitted page. position the archaeologists unearthed in 1989, andwhich has so far defied explanation (see Figure 6c). The implication isthat The Rose contains the imprint of some of the fundamental changes instage structure for staging purposes that characterised this period inEnglish drama Drama was introduced to England from Europe by the Romans, and auditoriums were constructed across the country for this purpose. By the medieval period, the mummers' plays had developed, a form of early street theatre associated with the Morris dance, concentrating on themes such . Questions to be answered next The recent analysis has produced some striking answers to thequestions raised in 1989, and of course raises even more. JonGreenfield's ground plan gives a width for each gallery of thepolygon of just twelve feet, close to, but smaller than, the twelve feetsix inches found on The Globe site, and incidentally just what wasspecified in the contract to build The Fortune, The Rose'ssuccessor, which is preserved in the archives at Dulwich. TheRose's actual gallery widths as measured from the archaeologyrecords at MoLAS suggest a size between 12 feet and 12 feet 4 inches.Re-excavation of the site should confirm those measurements, and allowextrapolation (mathematics, algorithm) extrapolation - A mathematical procedure which estimates values of a function for certain desired inputs given values for known inputs.If the desired input is outside the range of the known values this is called extrapolation, if it is inside then of the various sections of the theatre foundations whichare damaged or missing. The implication of The Rose starting without a fixed stage as aprecursor to Henslowe's nearby Hope of 1614 raises a mass of newquestions. Only a year after its construction, in April 1588, the localSewer Commission called it "the new Play-house", so by then itevidently was being used for plays. Was the first stage structure atemporary affair made of planks laid on barrels, as shown in pictures ofinnyard stages, or was it made as a permanent structure, integrated withthe adjacent gallery timbers? The angled wall foundations of the twostages uncovered in 1989 join the inner walls of the galleries atpeculiarly irregular points. Moreover there is no sign of any bases forstage posts to support a cover over the stage in the remains of the1587-8 design, so perhaps the original stage cover was cantilevered outfrom the gallery walls, as specified in the contract for The Hope. Orwas there a canvas awning stretched over the stage? The absence ofevidence for any foundations for stage posts in the remains of the firststage has led to the view that it was left uncovered, which givenLondon's weather and the high cost of the stage costumes is highlyunlikely. More evidence about the date and longevity of the first stagestructure may survive under the surface of The Rose's yard, whichhas yet to be excavated. The eastern section of The Rose, also not yet excavated, may offermuch more than a simple confirmation of the polygon's symmetry. Amap of the South Bank area made in 1628 shows The Swan, built in 1595well to the west of The Rose, as having fourteen sides (not the twentyor twenty-four of the notorious De Witt De Witt,uninc. town (1990 pop. 8,244), Onondaga co., central N.Y., a residential suburb of Syracuse. drawing of The Swan'sinterior), and a stair turret on its north-eastern flank. Stair turretswere an invaluable feature in the open-air theatres, because they gavethe audience direct access to the upper galleries, and thus saved on theseating space inside the frame that would otherwise have to be taken upby interior staircases. The Hope contract specified that its stairturrets should be copied from The Swan. The logical place for a stairturret at The Rose would be on the north-eastern side, closest to LondonBridge London Bridge,granite, five-arched bridge formerly over the Thames, in London, England. It is 928 ft (283 m) long and was designed by John Rennie and built between 1824 and 1831. which most customers from the city would have used to get to theplayhouse. Excavating the eastern section of the site might tell us agreat deal about the disposition of the Rose's structure aboveground. There are many other questions about The Rose design that needfacing. Were there two galleries or the three that Norden seems todepict in his first engraving, for instance? The erosion trench cut intothe mortar surface of the yard by constant dripping of water from thethatch of the gallery roof is noticeably closer to the inner gallerywalls than the one that the drips have marked in the new Globe'syard. The Globe's three galleries include two jutties or extensionsforward into the yard from the second and third levels of gallery. Theerosion trench at The Rose, being nearer the inner gallery wall, mayshow the position of thatch covering only two galleries, with a singlejutty. That is one question which calls for renewed study. Another isthat if the intended use was for a baiting arena, it would have demandeda highish wall protecting the lowest gallery on the inside facing thearena, in order to keep the spectators well above the animals. Thatpossibility was not in anyone's mind when the first investigationof the site took place. It too needs a fresh scrutiny, since it couldlead to a radical reinterpretation re��in��ter��pret?tr.v. re��in��ter��pret��ed, re��in��ter��pret��ing, re��in��ter��pretsTo interpret again or anew.re of the entire site design of 1587. Then there is the question of the drainage. On such a marshy marsh��y?adj. marsh��i��er, marsh��i��est1. Of, resembling, or characterized by a marsh or marshes; boggy.2. Growing in marshes. site,with a distinct low area in what became the middle of the yard, itsdrainage to the river was from the outset a major problem for thebuilder. There were almost no indications before April 1989 to say howit worked. The substantial wooden drain leading northwards was found alittle below the main foundation level behind the stage, probably, itwas thought, to take away water from the gutters over the stage.Otherwise, all the evidence about what kept the yard dry liesundiscovered beneath its mortar surfaces. A barrel-head was found set inthe mortar of the yard, off-centre on the western flank of the secondstage's foundations of 1592. It is not really likely that this wasintended to be a sump draining water from the centre of the yard, but itis a possibility. Excavation might determine if it was a sump or abarrel left behind from underpropping used to make a temporary boothstage in 1587-8. The recent analysis has begun to provide a richer, fuller pictureof the theatre where Shakespeare and Marlowe played, making possible anew architectural reconstruction (Figures 9, 10). Meanwhile we areconscious that there is still much to confirm or discover. To this end,The Rose Theatre Trust is preparing an application for funding to helpfinance a renewed dig, and set up a display putting the remains on showto the public. Southwark Council and the owners of Rose Court are happywith these plans. A major US acting group, led by Tina Packer once ofthe RSC, called Shakespeare and Company in Lenox, Massachusetts Lenox is a town in Berkshire County, Massachusetts, United States. Set in Western Massachusetts, it is part of the Pittsfield, Massachusetts Metropolitan Statistical Area. The population was 5,077 at the 2000 census. , wantsto build a replica in the Berkshires, near the Boston SymphonyOrchestra's summer home at Tanglewood. There has never been abetter time to complete the excavation that was stopped short in 1989. [FIGURES 9-10 OMITTED] References JULIAN BOWSHER. 1998. The Rose Theatre. An archaeologicaldiscovery. Museum of London The Museum of London documents the history of London from the Palaeolithic to the present day. The museum is located in a 1970s building close to the Barbican Centre, approximately 10 minutes' walk north of St Paul's Cathedral and admission is free. , London, 1998. JULIAN BOWSHER & SIMON BLATHERWICK. 1990. "The Structureof the Rose", in New Issues in the Reconstruction ofShakespeare's Theatre, ed. F. J. Hildy, Peter Lang, New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of , 1990. SUSAN P. CERESANO. 1989. Raising a playhouse from the dust.Shakespeare Quarterly 40:483-90. CHRISTINE ECCLES. 1990, The Rose Theatre, Nick Hern hern?n.A heron.[Variant of heron.] Books, London. R.A. FOAKES. 1991. The Discovery of the Rose theatre: someimplications. Shakespeare Survey 43: 141-8. ANDREW GURR. 1992. Cultural Property and 'sufficientinterest': the Rose and the Globe sites. International Journal ofCultural Property I: 9-25. JOHN ORRELL & ANDREW CORR CORRUsed on the consolidated tape to indicate a correction in a reported transaction : CORR.LAST.GY 50 WAS 51. . 1989a. What the Rose can tell us.Times Literary Supplement, 9-15 June 1989: 636, 649; --1989b What the Rose can tell us. Antiquity 63: 421-9. JEAN WILSON There are several people named Jean Wilson: Jean Wilson (scientist), a member of the National Academy of Sciences. Jean Wilson (speed skater) (1910–1933), a Canadian speed skater. . 1995. The Archaeology of Shakespeare. Alan Sutton,Stroud. Jon Greenfield (1) & Andrew Gurr (2) (1) Parameta Architects, 70 Cowcross Street, London EC1M 6EJ, UK,Director, Rose Theatre Trust (Email:jongreenfield@parameta-architects.co.uk) (2) Department of English Noun 1. department of English - the academic department responsible for teaching English and American literatureEnglish departmentacademic department - a division of a school that is responsible for a given subject , The University of Reading, P. O. Box218, Reading RG6 2AA, UR;), Director, Rose Theatre Trust (Email:andyguru2@aol.com) Received: 13 March 2003; Accepted: 30 September 2003; Revised: 21November 2003

The rural road: a look at when tiny rural schools in the middle of no man's land rule over consolidation.

The rural road: a look at when tiny rural schools in the middle of no man's land rule over consolidation. Eight years ago, administrators of a rural school in northeastern Minnesota faced a big decision. Birch Grove Elementary School elementary school:see school. in Tofte, Minn., was too small to be cost effective in the Cook County Independent School District 166. Birch Grove sits about 30 miles from the town of Grand Marais Grand Marais is the name of a few places in North America: Grand Marais, Manitoba, Canada. Grand Marais, Michigan, United States. Grand Marais, Minnesota, United States. . The decision seemed obvious: close Birch Grove. But that cure turned out to be deadlier than the disease. Fewer than three dozen students from Tofte, Lutsen and Schroeder had to be bused to a neighboring neigh��bor?n.1. One who lives near or next to another.2. A person, place, or thing adjacent to or located near another.3. A fellow human.4. Used as a form of familiar address.v. school, many of them traveling an hour and a half each way, leaving them exhausted and depleted de��plete?tr.v. de��plet��ed, de��plet��ing, de��pletesTo decrease the fullness of; use up or empty out.[Latin d . The community pushed for another solution and the Birch Grove Foundation was born. The foundation is a private entity that helps raise money for Birch Grove Elementary School, which has reopened and is now serving 23 students. The foundation builds partnerships with local businesses and organizations, and uses the school facility to help defray de��fray?tr.v. de��frayed, de��fray��ing, de��fraysTo undertake the payment of (costs or expenses); pay.[French d��frayer, from Old French desfrayer : des-, costs. Foundation co-directors Lisa Hoff and Diane Hansen run the foundation lease the one-story building from the district, and then lease a portion back to the district for school use. One classroom is used for K-2 students and another room houses grades 3-5 students The rest of the building includes a computer lab, a medical clinic, and business and community uses such as a senior citizen center which offers intergenerational in��ter��gen��er��a��tion��al?adj.Being or occurring between generations: "These social-insurance programs are intergenerational and all education to the youngsters. "Birch Grove has as many strikes against it" now as it did when it was closed in 1986, Hansen says. "It has low numbers; we live in a tourist area; there's a high cost of living; and it's a high retirement population." But the school offers what few urban or suburban schools can't: A place where children learn from each other in part through buddy programs where older students help younger students read or simply help them pull on bulky winter coats and pants, Hansen says. Not only are they performing well academically, Hansen says, students grow up respecting and helping others. The district pays the two teachers' salaries while the foundation covers utilities, maintenance, snow plowing a structure, usually adj.Relatively distant or remote from a center or middle: outlying regions.outlyingAdjectivefar away from the main areaAdj. 1. rural schools, and in this case, aids two schools in the district. And as small a school as it is, it compliments the rural area. "Businesses have come forward and stated many times that you need an elementary school to attract workers and keep business thriving" in the community, Hoff says. "I think it can work in any school as long as the level of commitment is there," Hansen says. "We're lucky we do have that." Rural = Ripe for Consolidation When it comes to rural schools, a larger proportion of them tend to be small because they are usually situated in low-populated areas, according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. Alison Yaunches, spokeswoman for Rural School and Community Trust The Rural School and Community Trust (Rural Trust) is a national nonprofit organization addressing the crucial relationship between good schools and thriving communities. Their mission is to help rural schools and communities get better together. . The trust is a national nonprofit organization Nonprofit OrganizationAn association that is given tax-free status. Donations to a non-profit organization are often tax deductible as well.Notes:Examples of non-profit organizations are charities, hospitals and schools. that addresses the relationship between good schools and thriving naval communities. And the trend is to go small. "The general push in education reform [now] is to go hack to smaller schools," Yaunches says. Even in districts that have moved toward consolidation, particularly in West Virginia West Virginia,E central state of the United States. It is bordered by Pennsylvania and Maryland (N), Virginia (E and S), and Kentucky and, across the Ohio R., Ohio (W).Facts and FiguresArea, 24,181 sq mi (62,629 sq km). Pop. since 1990, it shows to be a not-so-wonderful choice. Research "proved that all promises of consolidation didn't play out," Yaunches says. "There's an increase in busing costs, it didn't offset the cost of closing the school, the number of administrators increased, and the number of kids decreased." "Consolidation isn't the answer and there are so many reasons on our end showing that community schools are better." Smaller is seen as a better solution to large monstrosities of buildings, where kids are alienated al��ien��ate?tr.v. al��ien��at��ed, al��ien��at��ing, al��ien��ates1. To cause to become unfriendly or hostile; estrange: alienate a friend; alienate potential supporters by taking extreme positions. , crime is more prevalent, and students tend to drop out more often, says author and former educator Barbara Kent Lawrence, who wrote The Hermit Crab hermit crab,a crustacean distinguished from true crabs by its long, soft, spirally coiled abdomen terminating in an asymmetrically hooked tail. Most hermit crabs protect this vulnerable portion of their bodies by occupying the empty shells of periwinkles, whelks, Solution, This book, published by AEL AEL Association Electronique LibreAEL Appalachia Educational LaboratoryAEL Arabisch Europese LigaAEL Agence de l'EnergieAEL Arab European LeagueAEL Accessible Emission LimitAEL Acceptable Exposure LimitAEL Arquivo Edgard Leuenroth , exposes some creative alternatives for improving rural schools and keeping them open, Even so, more states are looking to consolidate small schools. "It comes from the misunderstanding that we outline in Dollars & Sense: The Cost Effectiveness of Small Schools study, says Lawrence, a co-author. "There is a mantra mantra(măn`trə, mŭn–), in Hinduism and Buddhism, mystic words used in ritual and meditation. A mantra is believed to be the sound form of reality, having the power to bring into being the reality it represents. that people spout because they believe it is true. They think 'We'll save all this money by consolidating the school' but a lot of things happen to be expensive." For example, Nebraska legislators, which has many rural schools, proposed last year to close all the small schools in the state. Communities fought it and the legislation was axed, Lawrence says. But nearly 950 school districts in the state have closed in the last 30 years, according to TheIndependent.com news wire. And them are fewer districts in the state than there have been since the Civil War. When small, rural schools shut down, students often take long bus rides to school, as they did in Tofte, Minn., or they need to find transportation, or they just can't take part in after-school activities due to such issues. "That erodes their participation in the life of the school itself," Lawrence says. "And it negatively affects their school performance." Lawrence explains that the costs of building a new school versus the cost of renovating an older school are never fully explained. A new building might be less expensive, but the costs don't include the hidden cost of carting the older school, to be replaced with the new building, to the landfill. And there is a real economic impact when schools close, as downtown merchants see their business dwindling dwin��dle?v. dwin��dled, dwin��dling, dwin��dlesv.intr.To become gradually less until little remains.v.tr.To cause to dwindle. See Synonyms at decrease. because customers stop shopping there, Lawrence says. When Rural Means Isolated In Lake County Schools in northwest Montana, the three smallest districts are scattered ScatteredUsed for listed equity securities. Unconcentrated buy or sell interest. amid farm country so using the school buildings for community use is not so popular. Joyce Decker Wegner, superintendent of Lake County Schools, oversees eight districts, three of which have fewer than 25 students and no principal on site. The three small districts include 35 Valley View School District in Polson with 25 students in K-6 and two teachers; 73 Salmon Prairie in Swan Lake Swan Lake (Russian: Лебединое Озеро, Lebedinoye Ozero, Swan Lake with seven students in K-8 and one teacher; and 33 Upper West Shore-Dayton, in Dayton, which has eight students in K-6 and one teacher. The schools held their own while up to 200 rural schools that once polka-dotted the landscape over the past few decades were shut down. As roads improved and the number of farms decreased as they grew bigger, there were fewer children and schools closed, Wegner says. But Salmon Prairie and Dayton districts The Dayton District is a railroad line owned and operated by the Norfolk Southern Railway in the U.S. state of Ohio. The line runs from Columbus southwest to Cincinnati along former Pennsylvania Railroad and New York Central Railroad lines. are on the endangered en��dan��ger?tr.v. en��dan��gered, en��dan��ger��ing, en��dan��gers1. To expose to harm or danger; imperil.2. To threaten with extinction. list to close and be consolidated into bigger schools in the area. Dayton, which is 30 miles north of Polson, is already a consolidation of three former country schools. Wegner's office is in Polson, which is 60 miles north of Missoula. If enrollment in any Montana school district is under 10 students for three consecutive years, taxpayers must pay half of the state's payment of the general fund, or 22 percent, for that district. For some families in Cook County, it's only about a $7 increase, Wegner says. "They can do that [keep the schools open] indefinitely as long as the board votes to do that," Wegner says. West Shore-Dayton is in its second consecutive year of having under 10 students and Salmon Prairie is in its first year with less than 10 students. "I'm very supportive of them when they're providing a good education to the students," Wegner says. "The last few years for these tiny schools, the crucial thing is the quality of the teachers. If you don't have a good teacher, you'll have a terrible school." "I'm supportive of the schools with conditions they are continuing good professional development and the school board backs that and if they try to keep good teachers on staff then I'm supportive of keeping the school open. If the numbers drop down lower than 5, I'd say, 'No.'" But it also depends on the mix of the kids, the grades, and if the students can all work and meld together, Wegner says, or if children of committed, active families are trying to finish off school, then she would support keeping it open. And this year, Valley View and Dayton districts have new teachers. The three former teachers who left were lured by higher salaries and health benefits in nearby towns in the same county. One teacher's salary could not be matched this year because federal monies that helped pay for his salary were lost due to a shift of federal guidelines on poverty this year, she says. "You need to find people that not only love to teach but are very independent," Wegner says. "Sometimes they have to be the janitor" or wire computers and repair plumbing pipes, she says. Salaries are also quite low in this rural county, where mountains loom loom,frame or machine used for weaving; there is evidence that the loom has been in use since 4400 B.C.Modern looms are of two types, those with a shuttle (the part that carries the weft through the shed) and those without; the latter draw the weft from a high. Teachers make between $24,000 and $38,000 while principals make up to $50,000. But smaller is still king. "What is happening is that there are a lot of people who don't like sending their kids to the big schools with 125 kids in a grade in Polson and Ronan school districts (in nearby towns), or ... in the middle schools where there are more discipline problems," Wegner says, "What is happening in Valley View School District is that parents are choosing the small rural school scene." Focus on the Haves As a rural school, administrators must think of the assets. In North Haven North Haven,town (1990 pop. 22,249), New Haven co., S Conn., on the Quinnipiac River; settled c.1650, set off from New Haven 1786. Chiefly residential, it has some manufactures, such as aircraft parts, tools, chemicals, and machinery. , a tiny island off the coast of Maine, a retired New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of director and set designer set up his new life. His background was a perfect fit for the theater arts program at North Haven Community School with roughly 70 students, Lawrence points out. The director-turned-arts-teacher, John Wulp, was instrumental in replacing the defunct DEFUNCT. A term used for one that is deceased or dead. In some acts of assembly in Pennsylvania, such deceased person is called a decedent. (q.v.) general store with a new $3 million community center, home to the North Haven Arts & Enrichment program including a theater. "Small schools can be more agile and can respond faster and have more imagination than great big institutions can," Lawrence says. "It requires some creative thinking. "There are definitely more people recognizing the benefits of small schools," Lawrence says. "In many ways you can be more responsive to the people in your environment if you know them all. If they get to be too many people then you're forced to rely on formalized for��mal��ize?tr.v. for��mal��ized, for��mal��iz��ing, for��mal��iz��es1. To give a definite form or shape to.2. a. To make formal.b. structure which takes precedence over people and it's often not the right response." Leaders must think, "What do we have here that is valuable as a base to strengthen not only our school but our whole economic base?" Lawrence adds. "More strategically, ... it's not just about saving the school, but saving the whole community and making the place as functional as a community." Yaunches adds, "When you close a small rural school you're kind of dosing a community. It's hard to believe but it's true." The top 3 tips to retain a rural school 1. Size up your facility and see how you can improve your community and maximize space in your school. 2. Form a non-profit group and gather dedicated people and community volunteers to help, either serving as board members or to offer ideas and solutions. 3. Rent space in the building and make sure the renters have the needs of the building in mind. Make sure the renters mesh with the whole building, such as senior citizens that help the school form an intergenerational program. --from Lisa Hoff and Diane Hansen, co-founders of the Birch Grove Foundation A Look at Lake County (Mont.) School District As far as quality teachers go, Lake County (Mont.) Schools Superintendent Joyce Decker Wegner says, the No Child Left Behind act The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (Public Law 107-110), commonly known as NCLB (IPA: /ˈnɪkəlbiː/), is a United States federal law that was passed in the House of Representatives on May 23, 2001 does not impact her three smallest rural school districts. The three districts, Valley View, Salmon Prairie and Upper West Shore-Dayton schools, each with under 25 students, have highly qualified teachers, she says. Under new rules in the federal law, highly qualified teachers in one subject in rural schools have three years to become highly qualified in other subjects. The problem in these districts comes when showing comparisons of test results from one grade to the next, year after year, Wegner says. Because only one or a few students are in each grade in the three districts, maintaining privacy rights makes it impossible to publicize pub��li��cize?tr.v. pub��li��cized, pub��li��ciz��ing, pub��li��ciz��esTo give publicity to.publicizeor -ciseVerb[-cizing, -cized] those grades. The districts must join with other small schools across the state and lump their scores together with other schools, which also defeats the purpose of showing how one particular school is doing under the federal law, she says. In Montana, 175 schools are so small that there are three five-person teams in the Department of Education's Office of Public Instruction that review data of tests in those schools and then present that data to the state superintendent, according to Joe Lamson, spokesman for the Office of Public Instruction. All three small districts in Lake County are meeting adequate yearly progress Adequate Yearly Progress, or AYP, is a measurement defined by the United States federal No Child Left Behind Act that allows the U.S. Department of Education to determine how every public school and school district in the country is performing academically. . For More Information * AEL, former host of the ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools, www.ael.org * National Rural Education Association, www.nrea.net * Rural School and Community Trust, www.ruraledu.org * Dollars & Sense: The Cost Effectiveness of Small Schools study, www.kwfdn.org/ProgramAreas/Facilities/dollars_sense.pdf The More You Know ... Here's a list of readily available books on the topic of rural schools Battle Rock: The Struggle Over a One-Room School One-room schools were commonplace throughout rural portions of various countries including the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, United Kingdom and Ireland in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. in America's Vanishing West by William Ceils PublicAffairs Books www.publicaffairsbooks.com Curriculum and the American Rural School by Doug Feldmann University Press of America www.univpress.com Leadership for Rural Schools: Lessons For All Educators Donald Chalker Scarecrow Scarecrowgoes to Wizard of Oz to get brains. [Am. Lit.: The Wonderful Wizard of Oz]See : IgnoranceScarecrowcan’t live up to his name. [Am. Lit.: The Wonderful Wizard of Oz; Am. Education www.scarecroweducation.com Local Schools of Thought: A Search for Purpose in Rural Education by Clark D. Webb, Larry K. Shumway and R. Wayne Shute ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education & Small Schools www.ael.org/eric/ No Place but Here: A Teacher's Vocation in a Rural Community by Garret Keizer Penguin USA www.penguinputnam.com Rural by Cornelia Butler Flora, J Jacqueline D. Spears Westview Press www.westviewpress.com Small High Schools That Flourish: Rural Context, Case Studies, and Resources by Craig B. Howley and Hobart L. Harmon Rowman & Littlefield Publishers www.rowmanlittlefield.com Sustainable Small Schools: A Handbook for Rural Communities by Craig B. Howley and John M. Eckman ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools www.ael.org/eric/ Angela Pascopella is features editor.

Another Look at the NIMBY Phenomenon.

Another Look at the NIMBY Phenomenon. The report by Piat, "The NIMBY NIM��BY?n. pl. NIM��BYs SlangOne who objects to the establishment in one's neighborhood of projects, such as incinerators, prisons, or homeless shelters, that are believed to be dangerous, unsightly, or otherwise undesirable. Phenomenon: Listening toCommunity Residents' Concerns about Developing Housing forDeinstitutionalized People," is a very stimulating and challengingpiece of qualitative research Qualitative researchTraditional analysis of firm-specific prospects for future earnings. It may be based on data collected by the analysts, there is no formal quantitative framework used to generate projections. . It is not only written well, but alsodeals with a unique and important topic, the NIMBY ("not in my backyard") phenomenon, that many social workers need to deal with intheir community practices. Using a naturalistic paradigm, the authorreports interesting findings from the well-designed study based onactual cases of community opposition toward group homes in threeCanadian communities. Although the NIMBY is as old and common aphenomenon as the history of most treatment and rehabilitationfacilities in residential areas, the strength of this study is that itprimarily focuses on community residents' viewpoints andperspectives. The study findings suggest several important implicationsfor social work practitioners and social planners in the health careservices field. The underlying tenet of this study appears to be the value issuesbehind community reactions, particularly of the opposition side. Socialwork is a helping profession with specific values. In the case of theUnited States United States,officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. , the NASW NASW National Association of Science WritersNASW National Association of Social Workers (Washington, DC)NASW National Association of Social WorkersNASW National Association for Social Work (UK)Code of Ethics (as revised, 1997) sets forthvalues, ethical principles, and professional standards to which allsocial workers aspire and by which they can be judged. The Codedelineates six values as key to social work and prescribes ethicalprinciples based on these values. Among these six, the first four seemto be particularly related to the NIMBY problem: (1) Socialworkers' primary goal is to help people in need and to addresssocial problems; (2) social workers challenge social injustice Social Injustice is a concept relating to the perceived unfairness or injustice of a society in its divisions of rewards and burdens. The concept is distinct from those of justice in law, which may or may not be considered moral in practice. ; (3)social workers respect the inherent dignity and worth of the person; (4)social workers recognize the central importance of human relationships.All of these values prescribe certain ethical standards that concernsocial workers' responsibilities to clients, in practice settings,and to broader society as well as to colleagues, as professionals, andto the profession. This study as field research properly addresses thefirst three constituents very well with a keen perception and balancedassessment. In this study, the research design, data gathering technique,analytical and reconstructive scheme are extremely well done. However,there seems to be a lack of clarity in the case selection process."Maximum variation sampling" may be fine for a smallqualitative study, with those five selection variables. However, one(perhaps the most important) criteria was not included orspecified--timing. The author stated that "Incidents of communityopposition to the group homes had occurred during a two-year period atthe time of study" (p. 129), and "the group homes had been inoperation between four months and one year" at the time of thestudy (p. 130). The NIMBY, like any other social phenomenon or movement,is time-sensitive. Many problem-focused social activities and phenomenongradually or even suddenly retard as time passes or as momentum is lost.Thus, exactly when this study took place vis-[grave{e}]-vis the stage ofeach group home development would very much determine the extent andintensity of communi ty reaction to the arrival of such grouphomes--during the planning stage, at the beginning, within three months,six months, or a year later. At what point of development or operationthe data was collected needs to be specified for each case, because thatcan be an important control variable. The sampling of community residents (n = 13) was based on thepurposive pur��po��sive?adj.1. Having or serving a purpose.2. Purposeful: purposive behavior.pur method (names "taken from press clippings") and thenthe snowball method (their suggestions). This approach, although usefuland popular, may highly skew (1) The misalignment of a document or punch card in the feed tray or hopper that prohibits it from being scanned or read properly.(2) In facsimile, the difference in rectangularity between the received and transmitted page. the findings to the most outspoken voicesin each community, let alone nonrepresentative reactions of eachcommunity. An active vocal minority, even though powerful andinfluential, does not necessarily reflect the true reactions of thecommunity majority. The author states that "(F)ictitious names" of"three different communities and group homes were usedthroughout" when describing interviews (p. 130). This is a littleconfusing if the statement that "(N)o identifying information wasused" is referring to confidentiality or anonymity in the interviewprocess or to later reporting. Of course, specific reactions toanonymous community issues may not be possible in the "thenaturalistic inquiry." Then fictitious names must be used only forreporting purposes. Two most prominent findings of this study are the overwhelmingrejection of "the underlying philosophy ofdeinstitutionalization de��in��sti��tu��tion��al��i��za��tionn.The release of institutionalized people, especially mental health patients, from an institution for placement and care in the community. " and the serious question of "thefeasibility of social integration" as expressed by communityresidents. Such community sentiment may be real and perhaps prevalent.The author concludes that "The major finding is thecommunity's lack of support for deinstitutionalization and socialintegration policies" (p. 134). The author's ready acceptance,however, of the face value of residents' reasons for the oppositionmay risk committing a twisted form of "ecological fallacy The ecological fallacy is a widely recognized error in the interpretation of statistical data, whereby inferences about the nature of individuals are based solely upon aggregate statistics collected for the group to which those individuals belong. " orof a reversal of independent and dependent variables in complexassociation analysis. A careful analysis of the residents' verbatimand rationale may reveal that it is not so much their opposition to thedeinstitutionalization and social integration policies per se, ratherthinly covered expressions of their ignorance, fear, distrust, andabhorrence of those "strangers" living in their midst. Theirseemingly oppos ing stance to the policies, in fact, may be a pretext oftheir NIMBY mentality, regardless of, or even in spite of, theirotherwise open and more accommodating attitudes on other social issues.It should be recognized that most people feel easier and morecomfortable dealing with remote or abstract major enemies than withneedy fellowmen in close physical proximity to them. The author as aresearcher could have probed further into their answers in the"in-depth focused interviewing" and even could have speculatedas to the true reasons behind the facade of rationality of communityresidents as respondents under stress. The sense of justice or fairness is an elusive and temporal ideaand subject to personal interpretations of the external world. Manypeople might feel that the world is or should be "more just for methan generally" (Dalbert, 1999, p. xx Provide page number forquotation). In view of human nature, it is almost inevitable that thereare some discrepancies and tension between individual justice andcollective justice. In the social policy area, the dominant theme ofthat incongruity in��con��gru��i��ty?n. pl. in��con��gru��i��ties1. Lack of congruence.2. The state or quality of being incongruous.3. Something incongruous.Noun 1. is a question of self-interest and self-centeredness ofeach individual or group in the larger society. Such selfishness oftencarries sweet attributes of hypocrisy. The policy ofdeinstitutionalization in North America, for example, was not created ina vacuum or by one group overnight. It was a collective long-term policydecision for overall societal good, in which "ordinarycitizens" as well as "policymakers," more or lessparticipated and shared through various political processes. The NIMBYphilosophy and phenomenon unfortuna tely defy the democratic egalitarianprinciple of justice for all and its policy product. According to the author, residents claimed the failure of socialintegration as clientele being unable or unwilling to integrate, thegroup home developers not intending to integrate the clientele, orintegration neither benefiting the community nor the clientele. Theremay be some truth to those perceptions, but there also may be strongelements of self-fulfilling prophecy self-fulfilling prophecy,a concept developed by Robert K. Merton to explain how a belief or expectation, whether correct or not, affects the outcome of a situation or the way a person (or group) will behave. for failures. The respondents'hypocritical stance becomes clearer if they conceive "socialintegration" as being close physical interactions and exchanges incommunity life rather than a broad acculturation acculturation,culture changes resulting from contact among various societies over time. Contact may have distinct results, such as the borrowing of certain traits by one culture from another, or the relative fusion of separate cultures. , mainstreaming, andeventually wholesome humanizing process. Close interaction and exchangesdo not take place often among residents themselves in most urban andeven suburban communities today. Finally, the author suggests that "a concerted effort must bemade to listen to the community residents' concernsabout[ldots]social policies" (p. 136). Understanding and respectingthe community perspective is a very important first step in developingcommunity support and acceptance. Creative mediation and brokerage areimportant roles social workers need to play in any conflict situation.If this writer's reassessment is valid in regard to the communityresidents' rationalization as stated in the article, however,social workers need to play more advocator and educator roles. Socialworkers need to begin telling communities the truth and reality. Socialworkers need to tell residents that a community-based residentialprogram is usually more effective, less costly, more humane, and goodfor the whole society. Social workers need to help people understandthat socialization socialization/so��cial��iza��tion/ (so?shal-i-za��shun) the process by which society integrates the individual and the individual learns to behave in socially acceptable ways. so��cial��i��za��tionn. of deinstitutionalized individuals is feasible,desirable, actually happening, and inevitable in many places. The degreeof success largely depends on the community's participation andaccommodation as well as on public support systems. Social workers needto help strengthen residents' sensitivity and receptivity inbuilding a humane community in their back yard. Yes, we social workersneed to work progressively and persistently for an "in my backyard" (IMBY IMBY In My Back Yard ) movement. After all, social workers are strongbelievers and visionary workers with values for a just and humanesociety for all. ABOUT THE AUTHOR Dong Soo Kim, PhD, is professor, Ethelyn R. Strong School of SocialWork, Norfolk State University In 1942, the school became independent of VUU and was named Norfolk Polytechnic College. Within two years, by an act of the Virginia Legislature, it became a part of Virginia State College (now Virginia State University ), and granted its first bachelor's degrees in 1956. , 700 Park Avenue, Norfolk, VA 23504. REFERENCES Dalbert, C. (1999). The world is more just for me than generally:About the personal belief in a just world scale's validity. SocialJustice Research, 2(2), 79-98. National Association of Social Workers. (1997). Code of ethics (asrevised). Washington, DC: Author.

The scientific method and other bases for evaluation procedures.

The scientific method and other bases for evaluation procedures. THE PURPOSE of the present work is to provide fundamentals forapproaching the task of developing and applying the varied types ofevaluation instruments and procedures. In other words Adv. 1. in other words - otherwise stated; "in other words, we are broke"put differently , now that we knowwhat evaluation is for, how do we go about it? How can a teacher bestobtain evaluation results that will be accurate and trustworthy? This is a problem to which the methods of science can be applied.The teacher needs answers to questions pertaining per��tain?intr.v. per��tained, per��tain��ing, per��tains1. To have reference; relate: evidence that pertains to the accident.2. to his students. Thescientific method is one of the most powerful of all the approaches yetdevised for obtaining answers to questions. It has been usedsuccessfully to answer such questions as these: What is the function ofblood in the human body? What is the cause of tuberculosis tuberculosis(TB), contagious, wasting disease caused by any of several mycobacteria. The most common form of the disease is tuberculosis of the lungs (pulmonary consumption, or phthisis), but the intestines, bones and joints, the skin, and the genitourinary, ? How canpolio polio:see poliomyelitis. be prevented? How can messages be sent over great distances? Howcan objects be placed in orbit around the Earth? How can atomic energy atomic energy:see nuclear energy. be controlled so as to serve man's purposes? The methods that were used in answering each of these questionshave some characteristics in common that have a general application. Infact, science has become so much a part of our daily lives that many ofthese characteristics can be found in the ways we solve everydayproblems. Suppose, for example, that a boy has a battery-powered lighton his bicycle. Suppose, further, that when he tries to use the light,he finds it does not work. How might he approach his problem? He mightthink first that the switch is not all the way on, so he might trysnapping the switch back and forth a time or two. If this fails, hemight check to see whether the batteries were installed properly and aremaking good contact. If this fails, he might reason that the bulb bulb,thickened, fleshy plant bud, usually formed under the surface of the soil, which carries the plant over from one blooming season to another. It may have many fleshy layers (as in the onion and hyacinth) or thin dry scales (as in some lilies)—both of which hasburned out. If replacing the bulb does not correct the difficulty, hemight have reason to believe that one of the wires has broken. If hefinds the wires in good shape, he might then conclude that the batteriesare dead. For the purpose of this illustration, let us say that when hereplaces the batteries, the light functions again. Many of the steps that the boy took in this example are similar tosome of those that scientists take in their studies. For example, he hada clear conception of the problem that was to serve as the base of hisinvestigation. Second, he formulated for��mu��late?tr.v. for��mu��lat��ed, for��mu��lat��ing, for��mu��lates1. a. To state as or reduce to a formula.b. To express in systematic terms or concepts.c. a number of possible solutions tothe problem. And third, each of these possible solutions was tested tosee whether it would work. Teachers are expected to be able to cope with more complex problemsthan a nonfunctioning bicycle light but not so complex as to require ahigh level of specialized spe��cial��ize?v. spe��cial��ized, spe��cial��iz��ing, spe��cial��iz��esv.intr.1. To pursue a special activity, occupation, or field of study.2. scientific discipline. Rather, what is hopedfor is that the teacher will gradually become more and more skillful skill��ful?adj.1. Possessing or exercising skill; expert. See Synonyms at proficient.2. Characterized by, exhibiting, or requiring skill. atapplying a quite small number of easily understood principles which havewide implications. That is, in the evaluation phase of his work, theteacher should do his best to function as a practitioner of appliedscience. Even though the scientific method seems to have great potential foranswering educational questions, there is no intent to imply that alleducational problems can be solved scientifically. For example,decisions on the goals for an educational program are matters ofjudgment; they cannot be made by conducting a scientific inquiry. It istrue, of course, that scientific studies can be made that will yieldvaluable results in connection with the choice of goals, but the actualmaking of the decisions is a matter of value judgment, not scientificinquiry. In addition, the choice of teaching strategies and of the morespecific actions of teachers for facilitating learning will remainprincipally artistic aspects of teaching--at least until researchprovides answers to a great number of questions on teaching-learningprocesses. The reader should bear in mind that it is the scientific methodthat we are considering here, not the content of previous scientificfindings. Unfortunately, some courses in science are taught with suchgreat emphasis on the content of scientific knowledge that students cometo think of science and scientific knowledge as equivalent terms. Theaccumulated ac��cu��mu��late?v. ac��cu��mu��lat��ed, ac��cu��mu��lat��ing, ac��cu��mu��latesv.tr.To gather or pile up; amass. See Synonyms at gather.v.intr.To mount up; increase. body of scientific knowledge is, of course, of vastimportance in human affairs, but our main concern here is not with theknowledge obtained by science but with the methods used in obtainingthat knowledge. Describing the scientific method is not an easy task. In fact, itis a somewhat risky venture in view of the fact that even our mostskilled scientists do not agree on the details of how a scientistoperates. (1) There seem, however, to be some general characteristics ofscientific inquiry that are manifested in the work of large numbers ofscientists. The purpose here is to list a few characteristics that seemto be rather generally accepted and that are at the same time the onesmost directly related to the tasks of educational evaluation Educational evaluation is the evaluation process of characterizing and appraising some aspect/s of an educational process.There are two common purposes in educational evaluation which are, at times, in conflict with one another. . Thus, thecharacteristics listed are restricted to those believed to be the mostbasic to developing and applying techniques of evaluation. Major Phases in the Scientific Method Although the application of the scientific method need not follow aset pattern, the following major phases can be identified in manyscientific investigations: (2) 1. A felt need exists. This need can be some felt difficulty inadapting means to an end, in identifying the character of an object, orin explaining an unexpected event. 2. The problem is formulated. A clear-cut problem or questionrelated to the felt need is identified and carefully stated. 3. Hypotheses are formulated. Possible solutions to the problem orsuggested explanations are formulated. They may be based on hunches,guesses, a theory, or on other sources of ideas for possible solutions. 4. Data are collected. Information is collected that is related tothe hypotheses formulated in the previous phase. 5. Conclusions are drawn. The data are analyzed an��a��lyze?tr.v. an��a��lyzed, an��a��lyz��ing, an��a��lyz��es1. To examine methodically by separating into parts and studying their interrelations.2. Chemistry To make a chemical analysis of.3. in relation to thehypotheses in order to draw conclusions about the best solution,technique, or explanation. 6. The conclusions are analyzed. The solution is evaluated in thelight of expectations about future needs. It is most important to note that the foregoing steps need not befollowed in a rigid sequence. A characteristic of most scientificinvestigations is a shuttling Dot line printers use shuttle mechanisms to build a line of dots (dot row) by moving the print mechanism horizontally whilst rendering dots. Different manufacturers use different tecniques. back and forth between different phases ofthe process. For example, improved formulations of the problem statementare often made at many points during the process of a scientific study.Hypotheses may occur to the scientist not merely in that phase betweenformulation formulation/for��mu��la��tion/ (for?mu-la��shun) the act or product of formulating.American Law Institute Formulation of the problem and collection of data but also during theprocess of collecting and analyzing the data. The value of listing thesephases, therefore, is not in determining a strict serial order ofoperations In arithmetic and algebra, when a number or expression is both preceded and followed by a binary operation, a rule is required for which operation should be applied first. From the earliest use of mathematical notation, multiplication took precedence over addition, whichever side of a ; rather, it is in calling attention to the kinds of functionsthat usually need to be accomplished in a scientific study. It is also important to emphasize that the foregoing steps aretypically applied in an approximate continuing cycle. In a sense, theprocess never ends. As new data are obtained and analyzed, thusproviding new conclusions, the new conclusions are often found tosuggest new problems or new aspects of the original problem and newhypotheses that should be tested. In other words, by continuing throughrepeated cycles of the phases, scientists are able to obtain more andmore precise scientific knowledge by progressive refinement Progressive Refinement is a ray tracing algorithm that quickly reveals coarse structure of an image, and gradually reveals additional detail over time.The first pixel is rendered as a single rectangle occupying the entire work area. of theirstatements of problems, of formulations of hypotheses, and ofconclusions drawn from the analysis of data. The steps in the scientific method can easily be translated intosteps for developing an evaluation instrument. For example, Table 1shows how steps for constructing a classroom achievement test can bederived from the steps in the scientific method. Characteristics of the Scientific Method An important characteristic of the scientific method is that itprovides a means of checking the accuracy or validity of assertionsagainst factual evidence. (3) For example, if a friend told you that hehad discovered a cure for the common cold, what would your reaction be?It might be something like "Well, I'll have to see if it worksbefore I believe it." In other words, the basic meaning of thischaracteristic is about the same as that of the old saying"I'm from Missouri. You'll have to show me." As thereader well knows, it is easy to find people who are willing torecommend "surefire" remedies for the common cold. They rangeall the way from mustard plasters mustard plastern.A medicinal plaster made with a pastelike mixture of powdered black mustard, flour, and water, used especially as a counterirritant. to antibiotics AntibioticsDefinitionAntibiotics may be informally defined as the subgroup of anti-infectives that are derived from bacterial sources and are used to treat bacterial infections. . So far, however, nonehas met the test contained in this characteristic of the scientificmethod; that is, when subjected to rigorous, controlled investigation ofthe evidence, no remedy for the common cold has been found to work.Certain preparations may relieve the distress of a cold, but none willactually cure it. Another example of the application of this characteristic is in thetesting of the polio vaccine Two polio vaccines are used throughout the world to combat polio. The first was developed by Jonas Salk, first tested in 1952, and announced to the world by Salk on April 12, 1955. It consists of an injected dose of inactivated (dead) poliovirus. . Dr. Salk was not content merely to preparethe vaccine vaccinePreparation containing either killed or weakened live microorganisms or their toxins, introduced by mouth, by injection, or by nasal spray to stimulate production of antibodies against an infectious agent. on the basis of theory or on his expert judgment as to whatought to work. After the vaccine was prepared, it was repeatedly testedwith animals and humans to be sure that it actually produced the effectsanticipated. Let us now examine a relationship of this characteristic of scienceto the making of classroom evaluations. One illustration is inconnection with the concept of validity in testing. Makers of good testsare not satisfied merely to assemble a group of questions on the basisof theory and call it a valid test. They seek evidence that the testreally does Warren Trotter, better known as Really Doe, is an American rapper from Chicago, Illinois. He is affiliated with Kanye West and his G.O.O.D. Music family and label. DiscographySongs"Day By Day" "Plastic" "The Love" yield scores that can be validly interpreted as measures ofwhat was intended. For example, Alfred Binet Noun 1. Alfred Binet - French psychologist remembered for his studies of the intellectual development of children (1857-1911)Binet did more than compile To translate a program written in a high-level programming language into machine language. See compiler. acleverly contrived con��trived?adj.Obviously planned or calculated; not spontaneous or natural; labored: a novel with a contrived ending.con��triv list of questions for his intelligence tests, whichhe believed would differentiate between children of high and low mentalability. He took the additional step of administering the test questionsto children of differing ages and found that older children did in factanswer the questions correctly more frequently than the youngerchildren. It is generally accepted that mental ability increases withage, so that the results tended to support the claim for validity ofinterpretations based on the test. In other words, the goal here, as inall the other applications of this characteristic, is to get the factson what actually happens--to make certain that the stated assertions arein line with evidence that can be agreed upon Adj. 1. agreed upon - constituted or contracted by stipulation or agreement; "stipulatory obligations"stipulatorynoncontroversial, uncontroversial - not likely to arouse controversy by impartial Favoring neither; disinterested; treating all alike; unbiased; equitable, fair, and just. observers. The second characteristic of the scientific method is that oneuses, to the best of his ability, all the available and relevant data.(4) The scientist does not restrict his use of evidence to only thatwhich supports his theory, hopes, or expectations. He pays as muchattention to evidence contrary to his own ideas as to that whichsupports them. Nor does he limit the evidence to that which is easy toobtain. He conscientiously con��sci��en��tious?adj.1. Guided by or in accordance with the dictates of conscience; principled: a conscientious decision to speak out about injustice.2. seeks out all the information that pertainsto his investigation even if it requires years of tedious search throughdocuments, difficult experiments, and journeys to the far ends of theearth or even into space. An application of this characteristic to educational evaluation isin connection with the interpretation of vocational interestinventories. These inventories contain questions about the preferencesof the individual that are related to the kinds of occupations that hewould probably find most satisfying. Users of these devices sometimesfall into the trap of attempting to make an interpretation based uponthe results of the inventory only. This is risky because success andsatisfaction in a job are not dependent upon interests alone. Such adecision should be based on not only patterns of interest but alsomeasures of abilities, teachers' estimates of the individual'sinterests and abilities, opinions of parents, and all the otheravailable and relevant information. Another illustration is related to evaluation of achievement.Suppose, for example, that a teacher wished to know the extent to whichhis students had mastered concepts and operations involving fractions.He could easily give a quiz A quiz is a form of game or mind sport in which the players (as individuals or in teams) attempt to answer questions correctly. Quizzes are also brief assessments used in education and similar fields to measure growth in knowledge, abilities, and/or skills. that would provide a partial answer to thisquestion. It would be a mistake, however, to base conclusions on theresults of the test alone. Instead, the teacher should make use of thetest results in conjunction with his own observations of pupils'work with fractions, with results obtained on previous tests, and withinformation that the pupils themselves can provide on learningdifficulties they have encountered. It can be seen from these illustrations that the characteristic ofthe scientific method involving the use of all the available andrelevant data is the basis for an important general rule forinterpreting evaluation results; namely, results obtained with anevaluation instrument or technique should be interpreted in the light ofall the other relevant measures or observations. An additional implication of this characteristic is of majorimportance. It is the basis of the concept of comprehensiveness. If atest or other evaluation device is comprehensive, it assesses all therelevant aspects of what it was intended to measure. For example, acomprehensive test on early American history from 1492 to 1789 wouldhave questions on early explorations, the colonial period Colonial Period may generally refer to any period in a country's history when it was subject to administration by a colonial power. Korea under Japanese rule Colonial America See alsoColonialism , and therevolutionary period. If all of the questions were focused on, say, theteacher's favorite topic of Washington at Valley Forge Valley Forge,on the Schuylkill River, SE Pa., NW of Philadelphia. There, during the American Revolution, the main camp of the Continental Army was established (Dec., 1777–June, 1778) under the command of Gen. George Washington. , the testmight be a good one for this narrow span of time, but it would not be acomprehensive test of early American history from 1492 to 1789. In otherwords, the test limited to Washington at Valley Forge would not make useof all the relevant student responses that could be made availablethrough using a wider variety of questions. The third characteristic of the scientific method is that its useinvolves a logical and thorough analysis of results. (5) If thereasoning in the analysis of results in an investigation is illogical,the conclusions are likely to be wrong. If the analysis lacksthoroughness, relationships in the data may be ignored that wouldsubstantially change the conclusions. One implication of this characteristic for evaluation is concernedwith rating scales. Consider a rating scale for use in judging thequality of handwriting HANDWRITING, evidence. Almost every person's handwriting has something whereby it may be distinguished from the writing of others, and this difference is sometimes intended by the term. 2. , for example. With such a scale it might bepossible to define five levels of quality: excellent, good, fair, poor,or unsatisfactory. It is clear that these five levels need much more inthe way of definition of what is characteristic of writing samples ateach level, yet some people mistakenly mis��tak��en?v.Past participle of mistake.adj.1. Wrong or incorrect in opinion, understanding, or perception.2. Based on error; wrong: a mistaken view of the situation. believe that the accuracy of sucha scale can be improved merely by attaching such numerical numericalexpressed in numbers, i.e. Arabic numerals of 0 to 9 inclusive.numerical nomenclaturea numerical code is used to indicate the words, or other alphabetical signals, intended. labels to thevarious categories as a 5 to the excellent level, a 4 to the good level,a 3 to the fair level, and so forth. Such people seem to believe thatassigning as��sign?tr.v. as��signed, as��sign��ing, as��signs1. To set apart for a particular purpose; designate: assigned a day for the inspection.2. a number for each of the various levels and then obtainingaverages of the scores would result in a more accurate measure. Itshould be apparent to the reader that no amount of manipulation with orwithout numbers can possibly increase the accuracy of the basic data.Moreover, using numbers for the different levels in this rating scaleand manipulating them arithmetically assumes that the scale has acharacteristic which it does not in fact have--equal units at all pointsalong the scale. For example, what evidence is there to assure us thatthe difference in quality between a "4" sample and a"5" sample of handwriting is the same as the difference inquality between a "2" sample and a "3" sample? Thus,obtaining an average rating in this way is inappropriate and illogicaland therefore violates this characteristic of the scientific method. The fourth characteristic of the scientific method is sometimesreferred to as intellectual honesty HonestySee also Righteousness, Virtuousness.Alethiaancient Greek personification of truth. [Gk. Myth.: Zimmerman, 18]Better Business Bureaunationwide system of organizations investigating dishonest business practices. [Am. . (6) This characteristic waspartially explained in connection with the second one, which concernsusing all the available and relevant data. The scientist always seeksthe truth; he is not trying to show that he is right. Thus, throughoutthe scientific process, he attempts to deal with the data and the logicin an open-minded, unbiased, objective manner. He eagerly seeks relevantinformation regardless of how the results may upset his presenttheoretical formulations or what it might otherwise cost him. This characteristic, too, has implications for classroomevaluation. Teachers are unlikely to distort results deliberately tomake them turn out the way they desire, but sometimes teachers do fallinto ways of thinking that border on intellectual dishonesty Intellectual dishonesty is the advocacy of a position known to be false. Rhetoric is used to advance an agenda or to reinforce one's deeply held beliefs in the face of overwhelming contrary evidence. . It iswidely recognized, for example, that a teacher's liking ordisliking for a student influences his evaluations of the student'sschoolwork. That is, if a teacher has a favorable fa��vor��a��ble?adj.1. Advantageous; helpful: favorable winds.2. Encouraging; propitious: a favorable diagnosis.3. impression of thechild, he is likely to pay more attention to things the child does welland less to those done poorly. (7) If teachers are not constantly onguard against it, their evaluations of students will be biased in favorof upon the side of; favorable to; for the advantage of.See also: favor those whose personalities are compatible with their own and againstthose whose personalities are incompatible incompatibleadj. 1) inconsistent. 2) unmatching. 3) unable to live together as husband and wife due to irreconcilable differences. In no-fault divorce states, if one of the spouses desires to end the marriage, that fact proves incompatibility, and a divorce . To be intellectually honest,therefore, the teacher must make every effort to take his own biases andpreferences into account. The fifth characteristic of the scientific method is that theinquiry is focused. (8) Scientific observation is not aimless gazing;the scientist is always looking for Looking forIn the context of general equities, this describing a buy interest in which a dealer is asked to offer stock, often involving a capital commitment. Antithesis of in touch with. something rather specific. Heachieves focus in his investigation by clearly defining his problem orthe research question and by setting up hypotheses or possible solutionsto the problem. His data collecting is then directed at obtaining thosepieces of evidence that can be used in testing the hypotheses or thepossible solutions. For example, little progress was made in astronomy astronomy,branch of science that studies the motions and natures of celestial bodies, such as planets, stars, and galaxies; more generally, the study of matter and energy in the universe at large. so long as men merely looked at the sky in wonder. Only as they began toformulate formulate/for��mu��late/ (for��mu-lat)1. to state in the form of a formula.2. to prepare in accordance with a prescribed or specified method. specific and testable ideas about relative movements ofdifferent heavenly heav��en��ly?adj.1. Sublime; delightful; enchanting.2. Of or relating to the firmament; celestial: the sun, the moon, and other heavenly bodies.3. bodies, about changes of light intensity with time,and so forth did they make discoveries which eventually led to thescience of astronomy. The same applies to making observations in the classroom. A skilledobserver does not go into a classroom and merely expose himself to thestimuli of what is taking place. He selects most of what he is toobserve, for it is impossible to attend to all the aspects of classroomactivity at one time. Thus, the classroom observer should use what heknows about educational principles and the learning process to guide himin determining what is most important to observe. For example, oneeducational principle of great importance is that classroom activitiesshould be organized so as to achieve the instructional objectives. Theobserver might, therefore, note the objectives for the particular lessonhe is observing and then see what student behaviors he can identify thatindicate that the pupils have or have not achieved the objectives. The importance of focus in scientific investigations is notdiminished di��min��ish?v. di��min��ished, di��min��ish��ing, di��min��ish��esv.tr.1. a. To make smaller or less or to cause to appear so.b. by the fact that the scientist should also be alert tounexpected developments. (9) Some of the most important scientificdiscoveries--the vacuum tube vacuum tube:see electron tube. vacuum tubeElectron tube consisting of a sealed glass or metal enclosure from which the air has been withdrawn. It was used in early electronic circuitry to control a flow of electrons. , transistors, and penicillin penicillin,any of a group of chemically similar substances obtained from molds of the genus Penicillium that were the first antibiotic agents to be used successfully in the treatment of bacterial infections in humans. , forinstance--were made by accident. Even though these discoveries wereoutside the focal point focal pointn.See focus. of the investigations in which they occurred, itis important to note that the investigations did nevertheless havefocus. Both kinds of attention are important: attention to the phenomenapertaining to the specific purpose of the investigation and attention tounexpected developments that may lead to important findings. This dual kind of attention is also important for teachers makingclassroom observations. To make good use of opportunities forobservation; the teacher must be looking for something in particular,but he must also make use of opportunities to note additional thingsthat may be important. The sixth characteristic of the scientific method is that theaccuracy and reliability of measurements or observations are as high aspossible. (10) Astronomy again provides an example. Great progress wasmade when instruments were developed that would reveal the spectra ofstars and the wavelengths of light at different points in the spectrum.As another example, it should be obvious to the reader that the scienceof physics could not have advanced to its present stage without theprior development of accurate instruments for measuring the directionand magnitude of forces, the intensity of light, the amount of electriccurrent, and so forth. This should not be taken to mean, however, that one cannot bescientific unless quantitative data are involved. The idea of accuracyalso applies to recording data that are not in the form of measurements.In the case of some kinds of evidence, there is no indication of howmuch; rather, it is a question of whether something exists or does notexist. For example, an anthropologist studying a primitive society mightmake an observation as to whether the society is matriarchal ma��tri��arch?n.1. A woman who rules a family, clan, or tribe.2. A woman who dominates a group or an activity.3. A highly respected woman who is a mother. (mother-dominated) or patriarchal pa��tri��ar��chal?adj.1. Of, relating to, or characteristic of a patriarch.2. Of or relating to a patriarchy: a patriarchal social system.3. (father-dominated). Numerical valuesneed not be involved in recording this kind of information, yet accuracyis important. It is also important that the data be recorded in the mostprecise language possible. (11) To illustrate the importance of preciselanguage in scientific investigation, note that physicians require moreprecise terminology for describing organs of the human body than dolaymen. This characteristic has very important implications for educationalevaluation. The concept of test reliability derives directly from it. Aneducational test should be reliable for precisely the same reasons thata chemist's scales should give consistent measurements. If testscores are reliable, they, too, are consistent. Test results are of verylittle value if they show a child to be at the sixth-grade level inarithmetic achievement one day and at the second-grade level the next.The highest possible consistency or reliability is desired, of course,although perfect reliability is never attained in educational tests orin any other kind of measurement. It is necessary, therefore, to haveways of determining the extent to which a test or other measure isreliable. It makes no more sense to draw conclusions about a student onthe basis of a test for which the reliability is unknown than to set theprice of a precious stone on the basis of its weight determined by ascale of unknown accuracy. It should be noted that reliability is important not just in thecase of tests but in the case of all evaluation instruments andtechniques. If results obtained with a rating scale are highlyunreliable, the use of the scale is questionable. If an interestinventory yields results which vary greatly from time to time, its valueis severely limited. If recorded observations fail to yield any sort ofconsistent (reliable) pattern, recording them serves little if anypractical purpose. Although there is no escaping the requirement of reliability,validity is even more important. In other words, it is more important tobe able to make valid interpretations of test scores than it is for thescores to be precise. Valid results, though somewhat crude, are moreuseful than highly precise measures that are not truly relevant to whatwas intended to be measured. Consider the case of the teacher who uses scores on a standardized standardizedpertaining to data that have been submitted to standardization procedures.standardized morbidity ratesee morbidity rate.standardized mortality ratesee mortality rate. algebra algebra,branch of mathematics concerned with operations on sets of numbers or other elements that are often represented by symbols. Algebra is a generalization of arithmetic and gains much of its power from dealing symbolically with elements and operations (such as test as the basis for final grades in algebra. Students mightcomplain, and properly so, that the standardized test A standardized test is a test administered and scored in a standard manner. The tests are designed in such a way that the "questions, conditions for administering, scoring procedures, and interpretations are consistent" [1] did not providevalid measures of their achievement because it did not cover the subjectmatter in the same way and with the same pattern of emphases as theteacher did in the actual conduct of the class. If this is so, theresults are invalid Null; void; without force or effect; lacking in authority.For example, a will that has not been properly witnessed is invalid and unenforceable. INVALID. In a physical sense, it is that which is wanting force; in a figurative sense, it signifies that which has no effect. for this purpose, no matter how reliable. Theproblem in this example is not consistency; it is in the fact that thescores, though highly reliable, are not fully relevant to what wassupposed to be measured. The seventh characteristic of the scientific method is that ofclassification, which underlies all science. (12) The scientist isunable to conduct systematic studies of phenomena until he is able toidentify and classify clas��si��fy?tr.v. clas��si��fied, clas��si��fy��ing, clas��si��fies1. To arrange or organize according to class or category.2. To designate (a document, for example) as confidential, secret, or top secret. the phenomena. An example is that progress in thestudy of chemistry was greatly facilitated by the development of thetable of chemical elements. The science of botany botany,science devoted to the study of plants. Botany, microbiology, and zoology together compose the science of biology. Humanity's earliest concern with plants was with their practical uses, i.e., for fuel, clothing, shelter, and, particularly, food and drugs. could not have beendeveloped without its intricate classification system. Major progress inchemistry and physics was marked by the development of categories forparticles <onlyinclude> This is a list of particles in particle physics, including currently known and hypothetical elementary particles, as well as the composite particles that can be built up from them. of matter, such as the molecule, atom, nucleus nucleus, in physicsnucleus,in physics, the extremely dense central core of an atom.The Nature of the NucleusComposition , and so forth. Classification is important in educational evaluation, too. Intests of educational achievement, for example, many teachers are contentwith a test that yields but a single score. If the reader thinks aboutit, he will realize, however, that achievement in almost any subject canhardly be regarded as just a single, unitary unitarypertaining to a single object or individual. kind of thing. One'sachievement might be high in certain aspects of the subject but low inothers. These kinds of differences tend to be masked A state of being disabled or cut off. by a test thatyields only a single score. For example, note that there usually aredifferent types of attainment for a particular subject. One type mightinvolve only the recall or memorization mem��o��rize?tr.v. mem��o��rized, mem��o��riz��ing, mem��o��riz��es1. To commit to memory; learn by heart.2. Computer Science To store in memory: of factual information. Anothermay go beyond the level of recall to that of comprehension comprehensionAct of or capacity for grasping with the intellect. The term is most often used in connection with tests of reading skills and language abilities, though other abilities (e.g., mathematical reasoning) may also be examined. . A third typemight be at the level of application, where the concept is not onlycomprehended but also put to use in actual, concrete situations. Afourth type might be at the analytical analytical, analyticpertaining to or emanating from analysis.analytical controlcontrol of confounding by analysis of the results of a trial or test. level, where the student is ableto make not only relatively simple applications but also complexapplications of a variety of concepts in relationship to one another.These categories of educational outcomes are more fully explained inTaxonomy of Educational Objectives The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, often called Bloom's Taxonomy, is a classification of the different objectives and skills that educators set for students (learning objectives). . (13) The taxonomy taxonomy:see classification. taxonomyIn biology, the classification of organisms into a hierarchy of groupings, from the general to the particular, that reflect evolutionary and usually morphological relationships: kingdom, phylum, class, order, is a system forclassifying educational goals. The reader should become familiar withthis reference. The point of the preceding example can be stated by the followingquestion: Would not the results of a test be a great deal more useful ifthey yielded, instead of a single score, a score indicating thestudent's strengths and weaknesses in various areas of the subjectas well as a second pattern of scores indicating his strengths andweaknesses in the various levels of attainment as described in thetaxonomy? It would be of particular significance, for example, to knowthat a particular student achieves extremely well at the lowestlevel--that of simple recall--but does poorly on questions that dealwith comprehension, application, or analysis. One of the greatest values of educational evaluation techniques isthe assistance they provide in the classification of students. Throughapplication of the techniques, students can be classified in terms oftheir potential for school learning, in terms of their motivation forlearning, in terms of particular kinds of learning difficulties to whichthey are prone, in terms of emotional difficulties that interfere withschool learning, in terms of the interests they possess that can be usedto facilitate school learning, and so forth. Without the ability toclassify pupils according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. categories such as these, teachers would bepowerless to carry out an educational program according to the needs orcapacities of the child. The eighth characteristic of the scientific method is thesuspension of judgment Suspension of judgment is a cognitive process and a rational state of mind in which one withholds judgments, particularly on the drawing of moral or ethical conclusions. The opposite of suspension of judgment is premature judgment usually shortened to prejudice. , an essential aspect. (14) A scientist mustresist the temptation TemptationTerror (See HORROR.)appleas fruit of the tree of knowledge in Eden, has come to epitomize temptation. [O.T.: Genesis 3:1–7; Br. Lit. to jump to conclusions on the basis of the firstset of results he obtains. He must discipline himself to wait until allthe evidence is in. In addition, he should suspend judgment until he hascarefully checked and rechecked his data and the logic of the analysis.If possible, he should check his work against that of otherinvestigators to see whether his results are in harmony with theirs.Only after such a process of doubting and painstaking pains��tak��ing?adj.Marked by or requiring great pains; very careful and diligent. See Synonyms at meticulous.n.Extremely careful and diligent work or effort. cross-checksshould conclusions be drawn. It is important to apply the concept of suspending judgment toeducational evaluation. For some teachers this is most difficult. Thewriter has known teachers who claim that, on the very first day ofschool, when they meet their new class for the first time, they can"peg" the students. They say that they can tell which oneswill be studious stu��di��ous?adj.1. a. Given to diligent study: a quiet, studious child.b. Conducive to study.2. , which will be slow learners, and which will causetrouble. Such teachers have not yet learned that first impressions canbe very misleading. Nor have they learned that in some cases their ownattitudes, which were formed on the basis of the first impression, mightactually cause the students to turn out the way they have been labeled.For example, if a student perceives that the teacher expects him to maketrouble, he may actually be encouraged to be a troublemaker. It is thebelief of the writer that it is not only unscientific unscientificUnproven, see there but also morallywrong for a teacher to make snap judgments a judgment formed on the instant without deliberation.See also: Snap about pupils. If he notesthat a certain student is often involved in misbehavior, he should avoidthoughts such as "Well, there's a troublemaker!" Itprobably would be wiser to think more along the following lines:"He seems to give the impression of being a troublemaker, but thismay be wrong. I have not yet seen him in a sufficient number ofsituations to draw conclusions. Perhaps if I continue to work with him,we can find a way of getting along together." The concept ofsuspending judgment should thus be applied on a pervasive pervasive,adj indicates that a condition permeates the entire development of the individual. basisthroughout the entire process of evaluation. Tentative tentative,adj not final or definite, such as an experimental or clinical finding that has not been validated. conclusions mustfrequently be drawn, of course, in order to make practical uses ofevaluation results. Tentativeness as a quality, however, should alwaysbe present. The ninth characteristic of the scientific method is an extensionof the previous one. It is that in applying the scientific method, onestrives for continuing refinement of hypotheses rather than a claim offinal proof. (15) The scientist is, of course, always seeking truth, butwhen he draws his conclusions, he never assumes that he has found thetruth in its final, ultimate form. The scientist never claims to have"proved" something for all time. The importance of this characteristic is underlined by the factthat, in a number of cases, findings that were considered greatdiscoveries in their time have more recently been found to be onlypartially correct. A familiar example is that the earth was once thoughtto be round. It apparently is not; recent measurements indicate that itis slightly pear-shaped. In addition, the diameter is slightly greaterat the equator than from pole to pole Pole to Pole is an eight-part television documentary travel series made for the BBC and released in 1992. The presenter is Michael Palin, this being the second of Palin's major journeys for the BBC. . Another example is the case ofNewton's laws Noun 1. Newton's law - one of three basic laws of classical mechanicslaw of motion, Newton's law of motionlaw of nature, law - a generalization that describes recurring facts or events in nature; "the laws of thermodynamics" of gravitation. Newton's discovery of these lawsrepresented a tremendous advancement in the field of physics. YetEinstein's more recent achievements have shown Newton's lawsto be only close approximations. Even though Einstein's theory isan improvement over Newton's, the former should still not beregarded as the ultimate solution. Instead, it should be regarded as aset of theoretical concepts and hypotheses that perhaps can be refinedeven further. An implication of this characteristic of continuing refinement ofhypotheses for educational evaluation is that in no instance should thecase be considered closed for a student. The teacher should always bewilling to accept new evidence that would change his views about apupil. Moreover, no test is so perfect that a score from it should bethought of as perfect or unchallengeable. There are many possiblefactors, such as errors in scoring or lack of motivation on the part ofthe student taking the test, that can cause large errors in test scores.Regardless of how apparently precise the scores, the teacher shouldalways be ready to accept new information that would change the picture. The tenth characteristic of the scientific method is that a studyshould he replicable. (16) This means that it should be possible forother investigators to repeat the same study to check the results. Ifother investigators cannot obtain the same results as the scientists whoperformed the original inquiry, the results are open to question. It maybe that the results were obtained only because of certain biases orobservational habits of the original investigator. Or it may be that theoriginal investigator made certain systematic errors in his analysis ofdata which would yield significant findings for him but for no one else.For example, he might have made the same error in addition each time headded a column of numbers. One implication of the idea of replicability is that the teachershould keep all records of evaluation results in such a way that otherpersons (for example, the teacher who will have the students next year)can draw the same conclusions from the data that he did. Records shouldbe kept in such a manner that other persons--even those not familiarwith his idiosyncrasies in keeping track of information--can easily findwhat they are looking for. The concept of replicability is related to that of objectivity.Objectivity in evaluation means that assessments are made in such amanner that they reflect the true characteristics of the child withoutdistortion distortion,in electronics, undesired change in an electric signal waveform as it passes from the input to the output of some system or device. In an audio system, distortion results in poor reproduction of recorded or transmitted sound. by the biases or preferences of the teacher or observer. Theso-called objective-type test has been given this name because it makesit possible to eliminate the biases or preferences of the scorer; thatis, no matter who scores a true-false or multiple-choice test, the scorewill turn out the same--assuming, of course, that the scorers understandthe scoring procedures and do not make errors in counting. Objectivity is a greater problem in connection with proceduresinvolving rating scales--scales for judging the quality of a musicalperformance, for example. Objectivity requires that the teacher makeobservations of the pupil by means of his own perceptual per��cep��tu��aladj.Of, based on, or involving perception. processes, withwhatever distortions they may possess, and then make a judgment aboutthe quality of the student's performance in terms of standardswhich he must apply mentally. There are many opportunities forsubjective factors to creep into such a process. The problem ofobjectivity here is great but not so great as to entirely negate ne��gate?tr.v. ne��gat��ed, ne��gat��ing, ne��gates1. To make ineffective or invalid; nullify.2. To rule out; deny. See Synonyms at deny.3. theusefulness of ratings if they are carefully made. The application of rating scales should involve replication In database management, the ability to keep distributed databases synchronized by routinely copying the entire database or subsets of the database to other servers in the network.There are various replication methods. if atall possible. If a number of different raters agree closely in theirratings of a number of individual students, it is likely that theproblem of objectivity has been largely overcome unless all the ratershappen to have the same biases. In other words, by replicating theobservations, a check can be made on the extent to which the ratingswere objectively rendered. In many situations where it is not practicalto replicate rep��li��catev.1. To duplicate, copy, reproduce, or repeat.2. To reproduce or make an exact copy or copies of genetic material, a cell, or an organism.n.A repetition of an experiment or a procedure. each and every rating rendered, it is possible tospot-check them by replicating a sample of, say, one in every 10. It ismost desirable that this kind of replication be accomplished so that thedegree of objectivity can be ascertained as��cer��tain?tr.v. as��cer��tained, as��cer��tain��ing, as��cer��tains1. To discover with certainty, as through examination or experimentation. See Synonyms at discover.2. . Complete objectivity is,however, unattainable with any type of evaluation device. The concept of replicability is also related to the reliability ofa test. (See also the sixth characteristic, accuracy and reliability ofmeasurement.) In fact, one way of estimating reliability is toadminister a test at the beginning of a week and then replicate byadministering it again to the same pupils at the end of the week. If theresults both times are very similar, the test is highly reliable. The eleventh In music or music theory an eleventh is the note eleven scale degrees from the root of a chord and also the interval between the root and the eleventh.Since there are only seven degrees in a diatonic scale the eleventh degree is the same as the subdominant and the interval and final characteristic of the scientific method isthat science is cumulative. (17) Scientific studies should be planned sothat they build upon the findings of earlier investigations. Scientistswill often spend many months in libraries and in corresponding withother scientists in order to locate all of the other studies that mightbe related to the one to be undertaken. By proceeding in a cumulativefashion, we have produced great stores of scientific knowledge. Thisknowledge is not an accumulation of isolated bits and pieces ofinformation; rather, it is increasingly becoming an integrated,inter-related body of knowledge. As each scientist makes hiscontribution, he helps push out the boundaries of knowledge further andfurther into what was once unknown. Because science is cumulative, it follows that educationalevaluation data should also be acquired in cumulative fashion. Ratherthan start afresh a��fresh?adv.Once more; anew; again: start afresh.afreshAdverbonce moreAdv. 1. collecting new data on a new class of students, theteacher should first check to see whether other dependable informationis already available. The information should be recorded in such amanner that additional information can be added by other teachers as thechild moves through different years of the school program. Thiscumulative method of obtaining and recording evaluation data eliminatesa great deal of unnecessary repetition REPETITION, construction of wills. A repetition takes place when the same testator, by the same testamentary instrument, gives to the same legatee legacies of equal amount and of the same kind; in such case the latter is considered a repetition of the former, and the legatee is entitled of effort. Moreover, because ofthe opportunities that the method provides for cross-checks, it shouldadd considerably to the validity of the information obtainable. Ateacher attempting to make the evaluations entirely on his own may nothave enough time or opportunities to observe patterns of performance orbehavior in students that show sufficient consistency. Other Bases for Evaluation Instruments and Procedures It is extremely important in evaluation procedures that, basically,only one kind of evidence be used: evidence of student behavior. Thismay seem strange to the reader at first because the term evaluation nodoubt conjures up visions of test papers, exercises, and the like, inaddition to direct observation of overt Public; open; manifest.The term overt is used in Criminal Law in reference to conduct that moves more directly toward the commission of an offense than do acts of planning and preparation that may ultimately lead to such conduct. OVERT. Open. behavior. It is true thatevaluation does encompass these kinds of devices, but it is also truethat these devices serve no other purpose than that of obtainingevidence of students' behavior--physical or mental. For example, astudent's answers to test questions are records indicatingsomething about how he behaved mentally when he was responding to thetest. A student's answers to a questionnaire are, similarly,records produced by his mental operations as he considered thequestions. Other clues to a person's mental behavior can beobtained by analyzing the objects that he has produced. For example, astudent's drawing can be considered a record of his behavior. Socan a mathematical model Note: The term model has a different meaning in model theory, a branch of mathematical logic. An artifact which is used to illustrate a mathematical idea is also called a mathematical model and this usage is the reverse of the sense explained below. or apparatus that the student set up in ascience experiment. Anecdotal anecdotal/an��ec��do��tal/ (an?ek-do��t'l) based on case histories rather than on controlled clinical trials. anecdotaladjective Unsubstantiated; occurring as single or isolated event. records, of course, are written records ofovert behavior that has been observed. Another basic factor that must always be taken into account indeveloping evaluation procedures is that if evaluations are made, theymust be made in terms of some sort of criteria or standards. This maynot apply in situations where the purpose is not to make evaluativejudgments but merely to obtain descriptions. However, if an evaluationis to be made, it must be made against criteria or standards. Forexample, in achievement evaluation, an attempt is made to determine theextent to which the pupils are attaining the objectives of instruction.At the point where the teacher or someone else tries to ascertainwhether the objectives have been achieved to a desirable degree, thenecessity for something to indicate criteria or standards for what isdesirable is obvious. No matter what type of evaluation is beingconsidered--whether it has to do with assessing achievement, mentalability, personality traits, or even unplanned effects--the process ofevaluation cannot be accomplished until standards or criteria, or somesort of frame of reference indicating desirable qualities, have beendeveloped. Philosophical considerations constitute the final basic factor withregard to how the task of evaluation should be accomplished. Certaintechniques that might be applied in evaluation would conflict with ourphilosophical value system. For example, we would not consider itethically correct to use stress as a means of eliciting behavior forpurposes of educational evaluation. This would be the case if a teacherresorted to frightening a child into admitting his weak-nesses as ameans of obtaining evaluation information. Another philosophical consideration is that evaluations should notbe made in personal areas of the child's life except as clearlynecessary in connection with the purposes of the school. Even if it isclearly necessary to make such evaluations, the teacher should realizethat it is often wise to obtain the approval of parents and schoolauthorities before probing into such areas as political beliefs, sexexperiences, or religious preferences. Most importantly Adv. 1. most importantly - above and beyond all other consideration; "above all, you must be independent"above all, most especially , if schoolassessments do involve collecting information in personal areas such asthese, the information should be treated confidentially. No one shouldbe allowed to see such information unless the nature of his work clearlyjustifies it and unless his integrity in keeping the informationconfidential can be established. That should go without saying, butunfortunately some teachers do need to be reminded occasionally thatthey should not gossip about confidential information Noun 1. confidential information - an indication of potential opportunity; "he got a tip on the stock market"; "a good lead for a job"steer, tip, wind, hint, lead on children ortheir parents. Such information is not a suitable subject for lunch hourchats or other informal conversations. Many school officials are reluctant to release certain kinds ofevaluation results, including test scores, to parents for similarreasons. Some parents are inclined to make use of such information inways that seem harmful to the healthy development of their children.Probably the best rule to follow is to release such information toparents only when there is a clear need to do so--and then only afterthey sufficiently understand the meaning and limitations of the scores. Conclusion This work sets forth fundamental principles and considerations thatpoint the way to how educational evaluation should be accomplished. Itis assumed that in this effort we wish to be as scientific as possible.This means that educational evaluation should be practiced as an appliedscience. It means that tests and other evaluation instruments should bedeveloped, to the maximum extent possible, with the same kind of rigor rigor/rig��or/ (rig��er) [L.] chill; rigidity.rigor mor��tis? the stiffening of a dead body accompanying depletion of adenosine triphosphate in the muscle fibers. used for instruments in other sciences. It means that when less formalprocedures are applied, such as observation by the teacher during aclass discussion, they should be applied in such a manner that conceptsof the scientific method are employed insofar in��so��far?adv.To such an extent.Adv. 1. insofar - to the degree or extent that; "insofar as it can be ascertained, the horse lung is comparable to that of man"; "so far as it is reasonably practical he should practice as possible. Theprinciples of scientific inquiry should not be abandoned even whenrelatively crude procedures are being used. To the extent, therefore, that it is necessary for teachers to usetechniques of evaluation, it is necessary for them to acquire somecompetency COMPETENCY, evidence. The legal fitness or ability of a witness to be heard on the trial of a cause. This term is also applied to written or other evidence which may be legally given on such trial, as, depositions, letters, account-books, and the like. 2. as practicing scientists. This may seem like a large order.It is not something that the reader can expect to accomplish fully bytaking a course or two in college or even by reading this work! Rather,it is an ability that a teacher should try to develop as a lifetimecareer goal. The hope is not that this book will serve as a "bag oftricks" that will enable teachers to do so easily. Instead, it ishoped that the book will provide the proper orientation for the readerand help him to make a good start in a productive direction. As the steps in the scientific method and their implications foreducational evaluation were developed in this text, it was pointed outthat they provide the basic structure of the steps for developingevaluation instruments. Early in the text an achievement test was usedas an illustration to show how steps in constructing evaluationinstruments are related to steps in the scientific method. A generalized gen��er��al��izedadj.1. Involving an entire organ, as when an epileptic seizure involves all parts of the brain.2. Not specifically adapted to a particular environment or function; not specialized.3. formulation of the steps for preparing any instrument or technique foreducational evaluation is the following: 1. Recognition of a need for information. 2. Clarification of the type of information to be sought and of thespecific kind of instrument or technique needed. 3. Specification of the particular learning outcomes, abilities, orother characteristics to be evaluated or assessed--the hypotheses orobjectives to guide the collection and analysis of results. 4. Collection of data. a. Selection of situations, problems, or stimuli that will give thestudent opportunities to express the kinds of behavior specified in step3. b. Provision of a means for obtaining a record of the behavior. c. Formulation of the terms or units that will be used to summarize sum��ma��rize?intr. & tr.v. sum��ma��rized, sum��ma��riz��ing, sum��ma��riz��esTo make a summary or make a summary of.sum the records of behavior obtained. d. Administration of the instrument or technique. e. Scoring or summary of results. 5. Analysis of results in comparison with the hypothetical Hypothetical is an adjective, meaning of or pertaining to a hypothesis. See: Hypothesis HypotheticalHypothetical (album) learningoutcomes, abilities, or other characteristics specified in step 3, andwith relevant standards. 6. Checking results against the general criteria for educationalevaluations or assessments: objectivity, reliability, comprehensiveness,and validity. The general criteria for evaluations or assessments referred to instep 6 are also derived from the scientific method. It was explainedthat the requirement for objectivity and replicability in evaluation issimilar to the requirement for objectivity and replicability in anyscientific observation. The requirement for reliability in evaluationinstruments and devices is based on the same principle as the need foraccuracy of measurement or observation in the physical sciences. Theconcept of replicability of scientific experiments provides a basis forprocedures for checking on both objectivity and reliability. Therequirement of comprehensiveness in educational evaluation derives fromthe scientist's insistence that all the available and relevant databe used. The concept of validity of evaluation instruments andprocedures derives from the principle that scientific inquiry involveschecking assertions against factual evidence and from the importance oflogical relevance in scientific analysis. The most important of these characteristics is validity. In fact,it includes the other three. If valid interpretations can be made fromtest results, the test must necessarily be objective, reliable, andcomprehensive. If it has faults in connection with any of the fourcriteria, it will measure something other than what it was intended tomeasure. Some additional bases set forth for development of instruments andprocedures include kinds of evidence that can be used, standards orcriteria for evaluation, and considerations of philosophy or values. This brief review of the scientific method yielded basiccharacteristics of inquiry and the general steps for developingevaluation instruments and procedures and the principal criteria forjudging their worth. NOTES AND REFERENCES 1. Abraham Kaplan Abraham Kaplan (June 11 1918 - June 19 1993) was an American philosopher. Kaplan's parents were Joseph J. and Chava (Lerner) Kaplan. Abraham's father was a Rabbi. He was raised in Odessa, Ukraine. , The Conduct of Inquiry (San Francisco San Francisco(săn frănsĭs`kō), city (1990 pop. 723,959), coextensive with San Francisco co., W Calif., on the tip of a peninsula between the Pacific Ocean and San Francisco Bay, which are connected by the strait known as the Golden : Chandler Chandler,city (1990 pop. 90,533), Maricopa co., S central Ariz., in the Salt River valley; inc. 1920. It is both a residential community and a center for research and technology. Tourism is also important, and the San Marcos Golf Resort is in Chandler. Publishing Co., 1964), pp.27-28; and Robert M. W. Travers, AnIntroduction to Educational Research, second edition (New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of :Macmillan Co., 1964), pp.1-3. 2. John Dewey, How We Think (Boston: D.C. Heath heath, tract of open landheath,tract of open land characterized by a few scattered trees, abundant moss cover, and numerous low shrubs, principally of the heath family (see heath, in botany). & Co., 1933),pp.106-118. 3. Ernest Nagel Ernest Nagel (November 16, 1901 — September 22, 1985) was among the most important philosophers of science of his time.Nagel was born in Prague (now capital of the Czech Republic; then part of the Austro Hungarian Empire) and immigrated to the United States at the age , The Structure of Science (New York: Harcourt,Brace & World, 1961), pp.4 and 9; and Morris R. Cohen cohenor kohen(Hebrew: “priest”) Jewish priest descended from Zadok (a descendant of Aaron), priest at the First Temple of Jerusalem. The biblical priesthood was hereditary and male. and ErnestNagel, An Introduction to Logic and Scientific Method (New York:Harcourt, Brace & World, 1934), p. 192. 4. T.H. Huxley, "The Method of Scientific Investigation,"in Science: Method and Meaning, eds. Samuel Rapport The former name of device management software from Wyse Technology, San Jose, CA (www.wyse.com) that is designed to centrally control up to 100,000+ devices, including Wyse thin clients (see Winterm), Palm, PocketPC and other mobile devices. and Helen Wright(New York: New York University Press New York University Press (or NYU Press), founded in 1916, is a university press that is part of New York University. External linkNew York University Press , 1963), pp.4-5; and Deobold B. VanDalen, Understanding Educational Research (New York: McGraw-Hill BookCo. 1966), p.52. 5. Cohen and Nagel, pp.191-192; and Kaplan, pp.6-7. 6. Kaplan, p.380. 7. R.H. Remmers, N.L. Gage, and J.F. Rummel, A PracticalIntroduction to Measurement and Evaluation, second edition (New York:Harper & Row, Publishers, 1965), p.359. 8. Max Black, "The Definition of Scientific Method," inScience and Civilization civilization,culture with a relatively high degree of elaboration and technical development. The term civilization also designates that complex of cultural elements that first appeared in human history between 8,000 and 6,000 years ago. , ed. Robert C. Stauffer (Madison, Wis adv. 1. Certainly; really; indeed.v. t. 1. To think; to suppose; to imagine; - used chiefly in the first person sing. present tense, I wis. See the Note under Ywis. .:University of Wisconsin Press The University of Wisconsin Press (or UW Press), founded in 1936, is a university press that is part of the Graduate School of the University of Wisconsin-Madison, United States. It published under its own name and the imprint The Popular Press. , 1949), pp.84-85; and Rapport and Wright,eds., Science: Method and Meaning, p.42. 9. W.I.B. Beveridge, "Chance," in Rapport and Wright,eds., Science: Method and Meaning, pp.131-147. 10. Nagel, p.9. 11. Nagel, pp.8-10. 12. Carter V. Good and Douglas E. Scates, Methods of Research:Educational, Psychological, Sociological (New York:Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1954), p.494. 13. Benjamin S. Bloom bloom1. the general appearance of the surface. In carcass meat it is the glistening, transparent effect and the gentle pink color that gives a good bloom to the carcass. It is the result of proper tissue hydration coupled with the correct proportions of fat, connective tissue and , ed., Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. TheClassification of Educational Goals, Handbook I: Cognitive Domain cognitive domain,n area of study that deals with the processes and measurable results of study, as well as the practical ability to apply intelligence. (NewYork: David McKay Co., 1956). 14. Nagel, p.12; and Van Dalen, p.30. 15. Nagel, p.13; and Marshall Walker, The Nature of ScientificThought (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1963), p.6. 16. Van Dalen, pp.53 and 57; and Huxley, p.4. 17. Walker, p.5. ENOCH I. SAWIN* * Enoch Sawin holds a B.S. in Mathematics (1947), an M.A. inEducation (1948), and a Ph.D. in Education (1951), Univ. of Chicago. Hehas served as Assistant Professor of Education at Syracuse Univ.,1950-1952, Education Specialist at the U.S. Air Force Air Univ., MaxwellAFB AFBabbr.acid-fast bacillusAFBAcid-fast bacillus, also 1. Aflatoxin B 2. Aorto-femoral bypass , AL, 1952-60; and Associate Professor, then Professor of Educationat San Francisco State Univ., 1960-92, retiring in 1992. Dr. Sawin haspublished numerous articles on evaluation, research, and statistics, andwas co-author co��au��thoror co-au��thor ?n.A collaborating or joint author.tr.v. co��au��thored, co��au��thor��ing, co��au��thorsTo be a collaborating or joint author of: "He and a colleague . . . , with J. Fraenkel and N. Wallen, of Visual Statistics,Allyn & Bacon, (1999). This paper was adapted from his book,Evaluation and the Work of the Teacher, Wadsworth Publishing, Belmont,California Belmont is a city in San Mateo County, California, United States. It is a small suburb in the San Francisco Bay Area, located half-way down the San Francisco Peninsula between San Mateo and San Carlos. The population was 25,123 at the 2000 census. , 1969. Reprinted with permission. Steps in Constructing an AchievementSteps in the Scientific Method Test1. A felt need exists. 1. The teacher desires information on pupils.2. The problem is formulated. 2. The basic problem is to assess the extent to which pupils have achieved certain goals. A subproblem is to decide what specific kind of instrument is needed. In this case, it is an achievement test.3. Hypotheses are formulated. 3. The hypotheses are indicated by the expected pupil-learning outcomes-- that is, the instructional goals or objectives.4. Data are collected. 4. With an achievement test, this step requires five substeps: * a. Situations or problems are selected that will give pupils opportunities to express the behaviors indicated in the instructional goals. b. A means is devised for obtaining a record of the pupils' behavior in these situations (for example, an answer sheet). c. Terms or units are decided on that will be used to summarize the records of behavior obtained. (How many points will be given for each answer? How many part scores will be obtained?) d. The test is administered. e. The test is scored.5. Conclusions are drawn. 5. The results, together with other available information, are analyzed in comparison with the instructional goals, and judgments are made on the extent to which the goals have been achieved.6. Conclusions are analyzed. 6. The results obtained are analyzed to determine the extent to which they meet the general criteria for educational measurements. [dagger] Are they objective? Are they reliable? Do they provide an adequate and comprehensive sample of the desired behaviors represented in the instructional goals? Are the interpretations valid?* Ralph W. Tyler, Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction,Syllabus for Education 305 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1950),pp. 74-75.[dagger] Tyler; pp. 76-77.TABLE 1 Relationships between Steps in the Scientific Method and Stepsin Achievement Test Construction