The strategies students in years 5, 7 and 9 use for processing texts and visual aids.

The strategies students in years 5, 7 and 9 use for processing texts and visual aids. An examination of strategies students used for processing written andvisual information provides suggestions on how to encourage strategicreading behaviour. Background to the problemA cursory cur��so��ry?adj.Performed with haste and scant attention to detail: a cursory glance at the headlines.[Late Latin curs examination of almost any Australian primary andpost-primary classroom would reveal the presence of textbook-typematerials, be they readers from set series or textbooks designed toprovide the learner with a knowledge in some discipline orinterdisciplinary in��ter��dis��ci��pli��nar��y?adj.Of, relating to, or involving two or more academic disciplines that are usually considered distinct.interdisciplinaryAdjective domain. Closer examination would also show that manyof these materials contain both written text and supporting visual aids visual aidsNoun, plobjects to be looked at that help the viewer to understand or remember something such as graphs, charts, maps, tables, and illustrations. The intentionof such aids is not only to break up large chunks of continuous textbut, more importantly, to present key data in a spatial, visual way sothat learners may better comprehend it. From an information-processingperspective, the presentation of material in different modalities ModalitiesThe factors and circumstances that cause a patient's symptoms to improve or worsen, including weather, time of day, effects of food, and similar factors. (verbal, visual) should lead to better understanding because of thepotential for dual coding (Paivio, 1986), conjoint con��joint?adj.1. Joined together; combined: "social order and prosperity, the conjoint aims of government"John K. Fairbank.2. retention (Kulhavy& Stock, 1996) and construction of superior mental models for thematerial (Schnotz, Picard & Hron, 1993). All this, however, clearlydepends upon what the learners do when confronted with such textbook textbookInformatics A treatise on a particular subject. See Bible. materials. If they do not have the strategies for processing the writtenwords and the visuals, and also for recognising the usefulness of thevisuals for understanding, then it will not be surprising to find thatthe potential is not realised. What strategies do students use then when they are confronted withtextbook materials containing visual aids? Are there differences in theways in which primary school students approach the problem, compared totheir colleagues in post-primary school? For example, do they monitor,reread Verb 1. reread - read anew; read again; "He re-read her letters to him"read - interpret something that is written or printed; "read the advertisement"; "Have you read Salman Rushdie?" , make judgements about the quality of the piece, generate images,comment about trying to memorise Verb 1. memorise - commit to memory; learn by heart; "Have you memorized your lines for the play yet?"memorize, con, learnunderstudy, alternate - be an understudy or alternate for a role the information? When it comes to thevisual, do they attempt to use different strategies such as relating thewritten words to the visual, seeing its usefulness for understanding?Indeed, it might also be asked if different subject domains anddifferent visual representations encourage different strategies. Whilethere is substantial literature on reading and studying strategies (e.g.Loxterman, Beck & McKeown, 1994; Wade, Trathen & Schraw, 1990),strategies for visual aids (e.g. Guthrie, Kimmerly & Weber, 1993;Robinson & Schraw, 1994) and the effects of visual aids on learning(e.g. Moore, 1994; Moore & Scevak, 1994), there seems to be lessliterature about how students actually go about the task of reading andstudying textbook materials. Furthermore, examination of developmentalpatterns has received scant scant?adj. scant��er, scant��est1. Barely sufficient: paid scant attention to the lecture.2. Falling short of a specific measure: a scant cup of sugar. attention, hence the study reported in thisarticle, which focusses upon the strategies verbalised by students inyears 5, 7 and 9 as they learned and studied two sets of textbookmaterial that contained visual aids. One set of materials was related toHistory, the other to Science. The problem that arises is how to access the mental thoughts ofstudents as they learn and study textbook materials. In other words Adv. 1. in other words - otherwise stated; "in other words, we are broke"put differently , howdo you get into their heads? Two prominent approaches have been taken,retrospective questioning (`What were you thinking when you did such andsuch?') and on-going protocol analysis using think-a-louds(students are prompted to talk out loud about what they are thinking atselected times). While there are limitations to each of theseapproaches, the latter seems less fraught fraught?adj.1. Filled with a specified element or elements; charged: an incident fraught with danger; an evening fraught with high drama.2. with problems, and has beenused in a number of recent studies examining reading strategies (e.g.Loxterman et al., 1994). On these bases, we decided to use think-aloudsas a way `info the students head'. Our studyA total of 119 individuals were involved in the study, made up of 37Year 5, 40 Year 7, and 42 Year 9 students, all attending anon-government high school or three of its feeder feederabbreviation for self-feeders. Used in feeding groups of animals at intervals of several days. Feed has to be dry and comminuted so that it will run down the spouts from the hopper into the troughs. primary schools. Allthe students were of average or above reading ability as measured bystandardised Adj. 1. standardised - brought into conformity with a standard; "standardized education"standardizedstandard - conforming to or constituting a standard of measurement or value; or of the usual or regularized or accepted kind; "windows of standard width"; reading tests. We made the decision to use only competentreaders as we were mindful mind��ful?adj.Attentive; heedful: always mindful of family responsibilities.See Synonyms at careful.mind of the potential disruptive influences ofless able students attempting reading and thinking out aloudsimultaneously. (The literature, Ericsson and Simon [1984], alsocautions employing think-alouds with less verbally proficient pro��fi��cient?adj.Having or marked by an advanced degree of competence, as in an art, vocation, profession, or branch of learning.n.An expert; an adept. individuals.) Each of the students was interviewed individually in aquiet room in the school, where they learned and studied the textbookinformation for a test, thinking aloud as they progressed through thematerials. All utterances were tape recorded for later transcription andcoding. For each of the year levels we wrote materials, in conjunctionwith the teachers, for both History and Science. For a number or reasonswe were concerned to produce materials that looked like typicalclassroom materials. Firstly, we wanted the students to see the task asone similar to their normal textbook work, in other words, the task wasecologically e��col��o��gy?n. pl. e��col��o��gies1. a. The science of the relationships between organisms and their environments. Also called bionomics.b. The relationship between organisms and their environment. valid. Secondly, we were concerned about makinggeneralisations for instruction from the findings, as research in thisarea has tended to use rather short, not well-integrated material. The History materials all related to famous battles (e.g. Battleof Waterloo Waterloo, town, BelgiumWaterloo(vä`tərlō), commune (1991 pop. 27,860), Walloon Brabant prov., central Belgium, near Brussels. The battle of Waterloo (see Waterloo campaign) was fought just south of there on June 18, 1815. ) and were presented with both written text and a tabular tab��u��laradj.1. Having a plane surface; flat.2. Organized as a table or list.3. Calculated by means of a table.tabularresembling a table. summary (the visual aid). For example, the Year 5 History text was aboutthe Vikings and contained six paragraphs (370 words) and a summary tableat the end of the text itself. For Science, the materials were relatedto the school syllabus A headnote; a short note preceding the text of a reported case that briefly summarizes the rulings of the court on the points decided in the case.The syllabus appears before the text of the opinion. (but had yet to be dealt with in class) andshowed written text plus a summary tree diagram (the visual aid). Eachset of texts was then marked with six red dots, prompts for thinkingaloud. These prompts occurred at major changes in tack in the text andafter the visual aid, that is, students were prompted to think aloud atsix points for Science, six for History. In prompting, they were askedto talk about anything they were thinking about after reading sectionsof the material. If they wished they could use the cue cue,n a stimulus that determines or may prompt the nature of a person's response.cuePsychology Any sensory stimulus that evokes a learned patterned response. See Conditioning. , `What I amthinking now is...'. Because of the likely novelty Novelty is the quality of being new. Although it may be said to have an objective dimension (e.g. a new style of art coming into being, such as abstract art or impressionism) it essentially exists in the subjective perceptions of individuals. to the studentsof thinking aloud while learning and studying, we constructed shortermaterials (with visuals) for practice purposes. Students did notprogress to the study proper until it was clear they had mastered thethink-aloud strategy. As part of the larger study (Moore & Scevak, in press), wealso gathered individual difference data (e.g. preferences for learning,confidence in learning from visual aids), students' free recalls,answers to multiple choice questions, and performance ondiagram/table-related tasks, but these are not reported here. So, we had individuals, on a one-on-one basis, from years 5, 7 and9 each read and study two sets of materials appropriate to their gradelevel, one in History, one in Science. The students were informed theywould be tested on what they had learned. While completing the task,they had to think aloud when they came to a red dot, the cue forrevealing their current thinking about their reading and learning. The findingsWe transcribed all the think-alouds, then coded them with a high 93per cent agreement between us. For text-based strategies we identifiedsix major strategy categories: Repeat (students repeated parts of thetext in their own words); Imagery (students talked about pictures intheir heads); Memorising (students talked about trying to memorise orrecall information); Monitoring (students talked about notunderstanding, checking on some aspect); Judging (students talked aboutsome quality of the materials, making personal judgment); and Priorknowledge (students talked about what else they may have known about thetopic). To clarify the categories, several examples follow:Imagery `...I can visualise how it could have been and how many laiddead after the battle'. (Year 9, History.)Memorising `...Dates and events. Trying to memorise theinformation'. (Year 7, History.)Monitoring `...the contents of the passage. Going over it a fewtimes, and then testing myself'. (Year 9, History.)Judging `...It was a good story'. (Year 5, History.)Prior knowledge `...Some of the gases pollute pol��lutev.1. To make unfit for or harmful to living things, especially by the addition of waste matter; contaminate.2. To make less suitable for an activity, especially by the introduction of unwanted factors. the air, plants, andgive people asthma' (Year 5, Science. Asthma was not mentioned intext.) For the visual aid we identified five major strategy categories:Repeat, Imagery, Monitoring (all as above); Relating (students talkedabout how visual and text were related); and Utility (students talkedabout how the visual could help learning). An example of a Relatingcomment is: `That (the diagram) explains the text' (Year 9,Science), while an example of a Utility comment is, `The diagram helpsto find out where everything fits in' (Year 9, Science). The findings from both History and Science are presented inFigures 1 to 4 inclusive. An examination of Figures 1 and 2 shows thatthe predominant pre��dom��i��nant?adj.1. Having greatest ascendancy, importance, influence, authority, or force. See Synonyms at dominant.2. strategy used for text processing is repeatinginformation from the text in their own words, irrespective of irrespective ofprep.Without consideration of; regardless of.irrespective ofpreposition despiteyear leveland irrespective of whether it is History or Science. There is verylittle reported use of imagery or prior knowledge. Monitoring plays somerole here being the second most commonly reported strategy. We hadthought that high school students might be a little more metacognitivein their use of text-based strategies but when we conducted statisticalanalyses (ANOVAS), we found no significant differences due to yearlevel. In other words, when it came to text-based strategies, thepattern for strategy use for Year 5 was no different from that of Year 7nor Year 9. [Fig. 1 TO 4 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] However, looking at Figures 3 and 4 (for aid strategy), thepicture becomes more interesting. Year 5 students seem to persist with arepeat strategy, for both the tabular summary in History (Figure 3) andthe Science tree diagram (Figure 4). For the History summary table, bothYear 7 and Year 9 students talked a lot more about how the text and theaid relate to each other while again there is very little reportedimagery. For History, students at all levels talked about the ways inwhich the aid was useful to their learning. Our statistical analyses ofthe History aid data showed significant differences on Repeat as well asRelating; for the former, Year 5 scored higher, for the latter, years 7and 9 scored higher. For Science, significance was found for Repeat(Year 5 scoring higher), for Imagery (Year 7 scoring higher) and forUtility (Year 9 highest, Year 5 lowest). In quick summary, then, our examination of the strategies thatstudents use when learning and studying textbook materials that containvisual aids shows that the predominant text-based strategy is to repeatinformation in their own words (irrespective of discipline and grade)with the younger students attempting to use their text-based strategies(especially repeat) to process the visual aid information. For thevisual aid, the older students begin to focus more on monitoring,relating the two representations, and seeing the ways in which thevisual aids can enhance their learning. Clearly, from this perspective,the older students are becoming more metacognitive in the ways in whichthey approach textbook learning, especially when we consider the visualaid. Having said that, the Year 5 students show an emergingunderstanding of the usefulness of visual aids for learning, but onlywhen they are confronted with a tabular summary (History). Such anunderstanding, though, seems to fade when it comes to the tree diagramin Science. Another interesting finding is the higher imagery scores forYear 7 students in Science. Could this be due to a concerted effort bythe teachers of this grade to train imagery strategies? Discussion and teaching implicationsThe study was conducted with average and above ability students,using think-alouds, and consequently we are not in a position todiscuss, specifically, the implications for those of lesser ability,although we would argue from general principles that many of thesuggestions we make are applicable to a whole range of students.Secondly, we only used two sets of materials at each grade level, onefor History, one for Science. What may occur in other disciplines, withother types of visual aids, may not reflect what we have here. Even withthese caveats, we see a number of implications for text and visual aidprocessing. Think-alouds, as used in this study, seem to have potential bothas a teaching technique and as a diagnostic strategy. For teaching,think-alouds are consistent with current thinking about the role ofmetacognition Metacognition refers to thinking about cognition (memory, perception, calculation, association, etc.) itself or to think/reason about one's own thinking. Types of knowledge in learning and studying where the notion of explicitlyverbalising mental operations in a shared context is seen as critical tothe development of `expertise'. To enable students to hear othermental operations as they occur, then model them themselves, seems aworthy pursuit for teachers at primary and secondary levels. There is astrong literature supporting the efficacy of such procedures (e.g.Roseshine & Meister, 1994). Indeed, Loxterman et al. showed that byusing think-alouds alone, comprehension comprehensionAct of or capacity for grasping with the intellect. The term is most often used in connection with tests of reading skills and language abilities, though other abilities (e.g., mathematical reasoning) may also be examined. of textbook-type material(without visuals) was enhanced. Diagnostically, the use of think-alouds will allow teachers to geta feel for the student's strengths and weaknesses in processing.If, for example, as some of our students did, there is an almostalgorithmic use of a strategy (such as repeat) for the text and thevisual, then the student could be questioned on alternative strategies.If the student has the knowledge of other strategies but does not employthem, one could question why. It may be that the student does notrealise that using particular strategies in a context makes adifference; he/she has not made the connections between strategy use andsuccess, nor understood that a lack of strategies may be a cause offailure. Such connections appear important for perseverance PerseveranceSee also Determination.Ainsworthredid dictionary manuscript burnt in fire. [Br. Hist.: Brewer Handbook, 752]Call of the Wild, Thedogs trail steadfastly through Alaska’s tundra. [Am. Lit. andpersistence (1) In a CRT, the time a phosphor dot remains illuminated after being energized. Long-persistence phosphors reduce flicker, but generate ghost-like images that linger on screen for a fraction of a second. in learning and lead to students believing that theirsuccesses and failures are due to things they control (Chan &Youlden, 1995; Moore & Chan, 1995). If, on the other hand, thestudent does not have the strategies, then they need to be taught. The predominance pre��dom��i��nance? also pre��dom��i��nan��cyn.The state or quality of being predominant; preponderance.Noun 1. predominance - the state of being predominant over otherspredomination, prepotency of repeating information in one's own wordsin our results is not surprising and students at all grade levels seemedto have a good grasp of it. While the strategy of using rehearsal re��hears��aln.The process of repeating information, such as a name or a list of words, in order to remember it.re��hearse v. andrepetition to reinforce relevant information is a common one, therelative lack of reported imagery did surprise us. Only in Year 7 inScience with the visual aid was there any substantial imagery reported.The materials, at least to us, were quite imageable, especially thoserelated to History. Teaching students to make images, pictures in theirheads of the materials, and then redrawing the ideas in mind-maps orsemantic maps, would seem a helpful way of getting them to appreciatethe power of imagery. More will be said about imagery later. Monitoring played some role in our findings, in the domain of bothtext and visuals. In fact, for the text alone, monitoring was the secondmost common strategy. Knowing how things are going, checking onunderstanding, identifying apparent discrepancies, and recognisingimpasses are critical to good comprehension (e.g. Biggs & Moore,1993) and it pleasing to see our students engage in such activity. Itmight be asked why there was not more monitoring. All students wereaverage or above in ability and the materials were written in a`considerate' (Armbruster & Anderson, 1988) manner with topicsentences, sub-headings and other signal cues to make the text readilydigestible digestiblehaving the quality of being able to be digested.digestible energythe proportion of the potential energy in a feed which is in fact digested.digestible proteinsee digestible protein. . Furthermore, the materials were written at grade levelreadability read��a��ble?adj.1. Easily read; legible: a readable typeface.2. Pleasurable or interesting to read: a readable story. . If the materials had been less considerate con��sid��er��ate?adj.1. Having or marked by regard for the needs or feelings of others. See Synonyms at thoughtful.2. Characterized by careful thought; deliberate. and moredifficult, then we may have witnessed greater monitoring.Teaching students monitoring and checking strategies by getting themto ask as they read, `Does this make sense?', `Am I understandingthis?', `Do I know what this means?', is not difficult. Ofcourse, simply knowing that something is wrong in learning is only thefirst stop; the student has to know what to do about the impasse im��passe?n.1. A road or passage having no exit; a cul-de-sac.2. A situation that is so difficult that no progress can be made; a deadlock or a stalemate: reached an impasse in the negotiations. --strategies again. For us, the most interesting findings related to the visualcategories of Relating and Utility. Understanding the relationshipsbetween the two modes of presenting material (verbal, visual) seems welldeveloped in the Year 9 students, particularly for the History summarytable. One Year 9 student reported, `...the Table summarizes the wholepassage. The first attack was the cavalry cavalry,a military force consisting of mounted troops trained to fight from horseback. Horseback riding probably evolved independently in the Eurasian steppes and the mountains above the Mesopotamian plain. By 1400 B.C. , the second the infantry infantry,body of soldiers who fight in an army on foot and are equipped with hand-carried weapons, in contradistinction originally to cavalry and other branches of an army. inblock and the third was the Garde Imperial. All attacks failed.'Here the student identifies the main idea links between the tworepresentations. No Year 5 student made such comments. Understanding howuseful the visual is for learning is better developed in the Year 5group in History but in Science this understanding, as mentioned before,fades. Indeed in Year 9 for Science, talking about the usefulness of theaid is the dominant strategy. We have developed a four-phase teaching strategy of Summarizing,Linking, Imaging and Checking (SLIC SLIC Subscriber Line Interface CircuitSLIC Scottish Library and Information CouncilSLIC System Licensed Internal CodeSLIC Subscriber Line Interface CardSLIC Session Layer Interface Card (Alacritech, Inc. ) which incorporates many of thestrategies mentioned above. For use in contexts of written text andvisual aids, students are taught to actively summarise Verb 1. summarise - be a summary of; "The abstract summarizes the main ideas in the paper"sum, sum up, summarizesum up, summarize, summarise, resume - give a summary (of); "he summed up his results"; "I will now summarize" the written wordsusing typical reading strategies of keywords, deleting redundantinformation and using their own words. Students then summarise thevisual aid by actually writing on it, obviously necessitating activeinvolvement and the use of both text and visual aid summarisation Noun 1. summarisation - the act of preparing a summary (or an instance thereof); stating briefly and succinctlysummarizationreport, account - the act of informing by verbal report; "he heard reports that they were causing trouble"; "by all accounts they strategies. Next the students read through the text and are taught in areciprocal teaching Reciprocal Teaching is a remedial reading instructional technique which applies a problem-solving heuristic to the process of reading comprehension, thereby promoting thinking while reading (Alfassi, 2004). manner to identify the links between the text andthe visual by underlining un��der��lin��ing?n.1. The act of drawing a line under; underscoring.2. Emphasis or stress, as in instruction or argument. and drawing lines between sentence segmentsand the relevant parts of the visual. In this way, relationships betweentext and visuals can be concretely illustrated. After linking, studentscarry out an imaging process in which they mentally `photograph'the aid with its accompanying verbal information (the summary of thevisual and the additional relevant summary information). Both teacherand students then describe their images and, following this, studentsdraw the visual from memory, including both types of information.Modelling of think-alouds used in retrieving the mental`photograph' is done by both students and teachers. Finally, acheck is made on the level of understanding by checking their workagainst the original study materials. All or part of the process canthen be repeated if understanding is not sufficient. Such a set ofstrategies incorporates summarising, monitoring, imaging, relating andusefulness. We have demonstrated the effectiveness of this training withhigh school students in History with texts and maps (Scevak & Moore,1990; Scevak, Moore & Kirby, 1993) and in Science with texts andgraphs (Moore & Scevak, 1995). A comprehensive outline of how suchstrategy training was conducted can be found in Scevak and Moore (1990)where the details of each aspect of SLIC are described for use inHistory. Concluding commentsIn this article we have attempted to demonstrate the strategies thatprimary and high school students use when reading and studying typicaltextbook material that contains visual aids. Our younger students showeda relatively focussed level of strategy development, with repeatinginformation being dominant to the extent that it carried over into theprocessing of the visual representation. The older students, notunexpectedly, had more comprehensive strategy repertoires but again`deficiencies' were identified such as the relative lack of use ofimagery. We suggested several ways in which teachers could encouragemore strategic behaviour in their students. To facilitate suchdevelopment, the following are some understanding oriented o��ri��ent?n.1. Orient The countries of Asia, especially of eastern Asia.2. a. The luster characteristic of a pearl of high quality.b. A pearl having exceptional luster.3. questionsthat teachers might ask: * How do I assess my students' textbook-learning strategyrepertoire? If I do, how many different ways do I do it? * Do my students have an array of strategies for dealing with textsand visual aids? If so, can they use them flexibly, and appropriately? * Do my students understand that strategic knowledge leads tosuccess? If they do, how do they demonstrate that understanding? * Do my students understand the relationships between the text andits supporting visuals? If they do, how do they demonstrate thatunderstanding? * Do my students understand the learning potential in visual aids?If so, how do they demonstrate that understanding? ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe authors wish to thank students and teachers in the cooperatingschools for their involvement. This research was funded by theAustralian Research Council The Australian Research Council (ARC) is the Australian Government’s main agency for allocating research funding to academics and researchers in Australian universities. . REFERENCESArmbruster, B. & Anderson, T. (1988). On selecting consideratecontent area text books. RASE rase?1?tr.v. rased, ras��ing, ras��esTo erase.[Middle English rasen, to scrape off, erase; see raze. , 9, 1, pp. 47-52.Biggs, J. & Moore, P. (1993). The Process of Learning. Sydney:Prentice Hall Prentice Hall is a leading educational publisher. It is an imprint of Pearson Education, Inc., based in Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA. 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