The transition on the coastal fringe of Greater Australia.

The transition on the coastal fringe of Greater Australia. Australia, with its wide continental shelves, is a difficult regionfor the study of coastal adaptations over the Transition, as so muchland was drowned by the post-glacial sea level rise. What can bediscerned has a place in a larger and longer-term pattern Of adaptation. The archaeology of Greater-Australian coastal life at thePleistocene-holocene Transition and earlier times is for the most partan underwater, or vanished, phenomenon. While we can expect importantcultural and demographic adjustments were made by human populations whomay have lived on palaeo-shorelines, we cannot be confident just whatthose adaptations, were. Still, the long and complex shore line ofGreater Australia (Figure 1) is being studied actively (albeit by arelatively few archaeologists), and their studies attempt to go beyondthe well-preserved confines of the later Holocene (c. 5000 b.p. andyounger) archaeological record to address issues of land-form use,population history, and human ecology. A number of themes, or at least points of reference, have emerged.These range from studies as fundamental as identifying anthropogenic an��thro��po��gen��ic?adj.1. Of or relating to anthropogenesis.2. Caused by humans: anthropogenic degradation of the environment. middens, and dating these features, to more robust studies of sitedistribution and concerns with details of coastal foraging economies.Rarely do studies address the importance of coastal resources in thepeopling of the continent, although Hallam (1976: 145)posited an initialcoastal colonization and Bowdler (1977; 1990) developed the hypothesisand its implications. Most current reconstructions, products ofexploratory research, favour interpretation based on radiometric datingand the presence/ absence indicators of human activities at the expenseof studies describing more accurately the nature of those humanactivities and accounting for the variability between sites, withinregions or between inter-regional complexes. The Australian coastal environment The ancient coastline of Greater Australia (Figure 1),significantly larger (depending on the position of sea-level) than thepresent Australian coastline which measures c. 36,700 km, extended fromthe equator to about 45 [degrees] S latitude, providing a very fullrange of ecological situations. Around the time of the Last Glacial Maximum The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) refers to the time of maximum extent of the ice sheets during the last glaciation (the W��rm or Wisconsin glaciation), approximately 20,000 years ago. This extreme persisted for several thousand years. , extensive plains wereexposed in the north, where the Barrier Reef, the Gulf of Carpentaria Noun 1. Gulf of Carpentaria - a wide shallow inlet of the Arafura Sea in northern AustraliaCarpentariaAustralia, Commonwealth of Australia - a nation occupying the whole of the Australian continent; Aboriginal tribes are thought to have migrated from ,and the Timor and Arafura Seas are now found. At thePleistocene-Holocene Transition these seas had nearly reached theircurrent positions, and straits separated Australia from New Guinea andTasmania (Figure 2). Extensive areas of continental shelf wereinundated, forming new, shallow and broad offshore environments. Wheresteeper off shore profiles are the rule, the coastal plains were muchnarrower and lateral transgression was less, depending on local profilemorphology (Chappell 1976; figure 2). In the period c. 17,000-6000 b.p., with a rise in global sea-levelfrom c. 120 m (Fair banks 1989) to its present position (Chappell 1976),there may have been periods of stasis or even short reversals; theimportant trend was toward gradual vertical rise of only millimeters peryear. Procumbent and precipitous coastal profiles The effects of marine transgression may be seen as followingpredictable differences between procumbent coastal profilescharacterized by low relief, gentle slope, low wave-energy and rapidlyweathering terrestrial land-forms, and precipitous profilesdistinguished by steep slope, high relief, high wave-@energy but hard,rocky, resistant land-forms. These very different coastal profiles (andtheir many inter gradations) may occur adjacent to one another wherebays and estuaries are formed between headlands, or they may form largetracts of comparatively uniform coastline dominated by low and sandyshores, or by steep rocky coasts. One way of considering how theevolving geomorphic ge��o��mor��phic?adj.Of or resembling the earth or its shape or surface configuration. configuration of different coastal land-forms mighthave influenced past human behaviour (as well as archaeologicalsite-preservation or visibility) is to consider first the coastalenvironment. These two quite different coastal profiles, procumbent andprecipitous, might realistically influence the configuration of aspectsof past foraging activities, site formation, and site preservation(Figure 3). Procumbent shorelines are typical of large parts of northernAustralia; precipitous coasts are found frequently, but not exclusively,in southern parts of Australia. The importance of distinguishing precipitous from procumbentcoastlines lies in intertidal in��ter��tid��al?adj.Of or being the region between the high tide mark and the low tide mark.in shellfish ecology and human shellfishpredation predationForm of food getting in which one animal, the predator, eats an animal of another species, the prey, immediately after killing it or, in some cases, while it is still alive. Most predators are generalists; they eat a variety of prey species. . The ecology of precipitous shorelines during marinetransgression would be comparatively static, new rocky upper intertidalsbeing created while earlier upper intertidals pass below tidal range. Incontrast, a procumbent shoreline environment changes significantly fromdry sub-aerial platform to developing intertidal where sand, silt andmud collected and formed an entirely different substrate, advantagingquite a different suite of species. So, it is likely during theTransition that precipitous coastlines maintained a comparatively stableenvironment, but procumbent zones experienced a dynamic succession ofmud-dwelling species replacing rocky/coral reef species followingextensive sedimentation.Correlates of procumbent coastlinesGeomorphic context low regional relief gentle offshore/onshoreprofile low-energy wave environment high local/regional terrestrialsediment discharge high intertidal sedimentation rate likely progradingcoastEnvironmental/ecological implications broad shallow intertidaluniform habitats with coarse intertidal zonation zo��na��tion?n.1. Arrangement or formation in zones; zonate structure.2. Ecology The distribution of organisms in biogeographic zones. many unfixed molluscamany infauna in��fau��na?n.Aquatic animals that live in the substrate of a body of water, especially in a soft sea bottom.[in-2 + fauna. species high abundance of available species individuals lowmolluscan mol��lus��canalso mol��lus��kan ?adj.Of or relating to the mollusks.n.A mollusk. species diversity prey species associated with sediment typeevolving community/patch dissimilarityArchaeological reflection low visibility of sites dating to marinetransgressive period many open sites, few or no shelter sites low prey-speciesdiversity in middens high abundance of available species individualshigh probability of occupation hiatuses weak coastal adaptation? lowprobability of complete site erosion high probability of site burialCorrelates of precipitous coastlinesGeomorphic context high regional relief steep offshore/onshoreprofile high-energy wave environment low local/regional terrestrialsediment discharge low intertidal sedimentation rate likely retrogradingcoastEnvironmental/ecological implications narrow steep intertidal complexmixed habitats with narrow intertidal zonation many fixed sessile sessile/ses��sile/ (ses��il) attached by a broad base, as opposed to being pedunculated or stalked. ses��sileadj.Permanently attached or fixed; not free-moving. mollucsa few infauna species lowabundance of available species individuals prey species not associatedwith sediment type high molluscan species diversity evolvingcommunity/patch stasisArchaeological reflection high (?) transgressive period sitevisibility few open sites, many cave sites high prey-species diversityin middens low probability of depositional hiatuses strong coastaladaptation? high probability of complete site erosionFigure 3. Correlates of procurement and prepitous coastline. An example of how such distinctions might have importance forarchaeological studies has been seen at Princess Charlotte Bay Princess Charlotte Bay is a large bay on the coast of far north Queensland at the base of Cape York Peninsula, 350 km north northwest of Cairns. Princess Charlotte Bay is a part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, and it is a habitat for the dugong. innorthern Queensland. Following the discovery of a very focussed mid- tolate-holocene marine economy there (Beaton 1985), I sought anexplanation for its surprisingly short chronology and its extensive setof monotypic monotypicsaid of a genus with only one species. (Anadara granosa) shell-mounds. This was an acute problemas Princess Charlotte Bay could hardly be bettered as a rich marine-foodcoastline, as its late prehistory prehistory,period of human evolution before writing was invented and records kept. The term was coined by Daniel Wilson in 1851. It is followed by protohistory, the period for which we have some records but must still rely largely on archaeological evidence to indicated. But why only a lateprehistory? There were open sites with excellent preservation,rock-shelters on the mainland foreshores and on the near-offshoreislands, dugong-butchering sites (Minnegal and an impressive number ofrock-painting sites with an iconography drawn from coastal life,including crocodile, fish, octopus, dugong dugong:see sirenian. dugongLarge marine mammal (Dugong dugon, the sole living member of the family Dugongidae) that lives in shallow coastal waters from the Red Sea and eastern Africa to the Philippines, New Guinea, and northern Australia. , sea-turtle and watercraft(Layton 1984). Missing from these depictions were the terrestrial faunaso common at sites of the interior Cape York peninsula Cape York Peninsula,280 mi (451 km) long, N Queensland, Australia, between the Gulf of Carpentaria and the Coral Sea. It is largely tropical jungle and sparsely populated. The Northern Peninsula Aboriginal Reserve is there. Weipa (1991 pop. 2,510) is the largest town. , such as those ofthe Laura area (Rosenfeld et al. 1981; Morwood & Hobbs 1994).Reviewing comparative evidence from other Australian archaeologicalsites credited with sequences dating to the late Pleistocene, I found(1985: figure 6): * most sites in Australia claiming early Holocenecoastal economies had dating problems, and * those that did not haveserious dating problems were associated with steep and rocky(precipitous) shorelines such as in Tasmania. I reasoned that developedmarine economies (such as that of Princess Charlotte Bay) were unlikelyto have been possible in muddy/sandy intertidals until mid-Holocenetimes, or later, and that economies developing on steep rocky shoresmight have had a significant temporal advantage. I failed, at that time,to stress adequately the importance of distinguishing coastal use fromcoastal economies, the latter being highly focussed and distinctiveexpressions of the former (see below). Subsequent research by others hasshown me the distinction is now of central importance if coastalarchaeology in Greater Australia is to be meaningfully understood at thePleistocene - Holocene Transition and for other times as well. Coastal economy, coastal use, coastal location Precisely what set of archaeological attributes constitute acoastal economy has yet to be defined and widely accepted for GreaterAustralia. We might consider a coastal economy to be one devoted, atleast more so than not so (Yesner 1980: 728 to the exploitation ofmarine resources. Lacking convincing quantitative measures of marineversus terrestrial faunal complements (as is usually the case inarchaeology) we might see archaeological indicators of this as well inmaterial culture such as fish-hooks, barbs or gorgets, fish-traps,netting devices, pry-bars for taking sessile molluscs, watercraft, denseprey assemblages of marine fauna, or in effigies or rock-art assemblagesdominated by marine-inspired motifs. We might expect coastal occupationsites to display a relatively complete range of attributes associatedwith,residential, activities. We would note changes in these at tributesover time or over space in both local and regional circumstances. The simple geographic position of a site does not imply itseconomic character (Hallam 1987) nor, I argue, do negligible amounts ofmarine constituents in sites amount necessarily to coastal economies,coastal adaptations or any thing of the sort. A coastal economy, then isone where human life-ways are transformed by the marine factor, whilstin `coastal use' the marine element is visible but nottransforming, and in chance coastal location, the material and faunalcomponents of sites are not significantly different from interior sites.On their own, neither site location nor slight marine constituent issufficient to claim a coastal economy or adaptation. Recognizing shell deposits Correctly identifying anthropogenic shell de posits is essential asAustralian coasts have many non-anthropogenic shell deposits. Attenbrow(1992), following Gill (1954) and others, has used attributes ofshellfish species composition including range and types of species,condition of shell fragments, size frequencies of prey individuals andthe presence of non-molluscan marine faunal remains in order todistinguish anthropogenic from natural shell accumulations.O'Connor & Sullivan (1994; cf. Chappell 1982; Beaton 1985) havedistinguished middens from shelly storm-ridge features (cheniers). Inthe tropical north, a determined and energetic campaign (Bailey 1991;1993; 1994; Bailey et al. 1994; Beaton n.d.; Cribb 1991; Roberts 1994)has reified the validity of extensive shell-mound complexes asarchaeological sites following their proposed devaluation devaluation,decreasing the value of one nation's currency relative to gold or the currencies of other nations. It is usually undertaken as a means of correcting a deficit in the balance of payments. (Stone 1989;1991 to fowl (megapode) mounds. Progress in some areas has beensignificant. Coastal evidence from Australasian regions The north-east periphery A stunning and perhaps unexpected set of discoveries of theresearch programme beginning with the Lapita Homeland Project (seepapers in Allen &, Gosden 1991) and reported widely fallen et al.1989; Fredrickson et al. 1993; Wickler & Spriggs 1988 Gosden, thisvolume indicate an unarguable interest in the marine world on the partof the earliest known occupants of the Solomon Islands and the BismarckArchipelago, the northeast periphery of Greater Australia. Gosden & Robertson (1991) report shellfish remains atMatenkupkum Rockshelter where Layers 6 and 7 show a significant butlimited use of the intertidal invertebrate invertebrate(ĭn'vûr`təbrət, –brāt'), any animal lacking a backbone. The invertebrates include the tunicates and lancelets of phylum Chordata, as well as all animal phyla other than Chordata. fauna between c. 33,000 and21,000 b.p. In Layers 2, 3 and 4 (c. 11,000-10,000 b.p.) the evidencefor shell fish-collecting is greatest at this mid-point in thePleistocene-Holocene Transition, and the authors (p. 41) refer to thisas the true (shell midden middendungheap. at the site. The molluscan prey assemblagederives from reef flats, which on this steep coastline are ecologicallymore similar to rocky shores than the muddy embayments frequently foundin the north. The early shell-midden facies facies/fa��ci��es/ (fa��she-ez) pl. fa��cies ? [L.]1. the face.2. surface; the outer aspect of a body part or organ.3. expression (1). is locally echoed in near-byMatenbek by c. 20,000 b.p., and the Transition increase at Matenkupkumis reflected at Balof 2 and finally at Panakiwuk by c. 8000 b.p. fallenet al. 1989). At the Kilu site on Buka Island, three radiometric dateson reef molluscs found in the basal level of the rock-shelter putshell-fishing as old as c. 20,000 b.p. (Wickler & Spriggs 1988). Together, these sites indicate that early economies of coastalGreater Australia took advantage of reef species and near-shore fishes.They were at least in part coastal adapted, or coastal economies, butthey do not look only to the sea. The introduction of exotic speciessuch as phalangers (Flannery SE White 1991) by early colonists toislands is coupled with the use of a broad array of terrestrial prey(Allen et al. 1989: 558). The use of plant resources such as Canariumsp., found at Panakiwuk (Marshall & Allen 1988), Pamwak from c.12,000 b.p. (Fredericksen et al. 1993) and at Kilu by c. 9000 b.p.(Wickler 1990: 140), add to the appreciation of these economies asmaking effective use of both terrestrial and coastal ecozones. Argumentsfor plant food residues on stone tools in the Solomon Islands (Loy etal. 1992) dilutes further the evidence for focussed marine exploitation. North-west Australia In the North West Cape North West Cape is a large peninsula of land in the north west coast of Western Australia. Cape Range runs down the spine of the peninsula and Ningaloo Reef runs along the western edge. It includes the town of Exmouth. of West Australia, a number of rock-sheltersites have been excavated (Bowdler 1990; O'Connor 1993;O'Connor et al. 1993; Morse 1988; 1993) along the present shorelineand near-shore islands. Mandu Mandu Creek (Morse 1989; 1993), arock-shelter occupied periodically c. 34,000 - 19,000 b.p., records aminimal deposition of marine shell, and certainly more terrestrial faunathan the combined remains of marine fauna/marine shell. Where the upperunit (Unit 1, c. 2500 b.p. to present@ has significant amounts of marineshell, marine (fish-bone, crab and urchin, the evidence for marineexploitation in the Unit 2 (c. 65 cm) deposit is negligible, butinterestingly so. Morse reports from her first excavation (1989: 86):Only 307 g of shell was excavated from Unit 2: this includesfragments of Turbo and Terebralia from the mixed layer, Spit 8.Fragments of baler and chiton chiton(kī`tən), common name for rock-clinging marine mollusks of the class Polyplacophora. Chitons are abundant on rocky coasts throughout most of the world, from the intertidal zone to a depth of about 1,200 ft (400 m). shell are present throughout this unit anda 27% nacreous nacreous/na��cre��ous/ (na��kre-us) having a pearl-like luster. na��cre��ousadj.Resembling mother-of-pearl; lustrous.nacreoushaving a pearl-like luster. fragment of either Nautilus nautilus, in zoologynautilus,cephalopod mollusk belonging to the sole surviving genus (Nautilus) of a subclass that flourished 200 million years ago, known as the nautiloids. or pearly oyster (Pinctada)was found at the baserock in the spit 16 bulk sample. It is uncertainwhether either of these species was eaten...; however use of theseshells as ornaments, such as pendants, is well documented in collectionsat the Western Australian Museum The Western Australian Museum is the main museum for the state of Western Australia. .In Morse's second excavation report (1993: 157) the shellfishremains are characterized as: With the exception of baler shell, theonly mollusc molluscmembers of the phylum Mollusca, which comprises about 50,000 species. Includes snails, slugs and the aquatic molluscs��oysters, mussels, clams, cockles, arkshells, scallop, abalone, cuttlefish, squid. species identified in the basal spits of this excavationare cone shells and fragments. All the cone shells have clearly beenselected for size and for species. Their work and etched surfacessuggest that they have been collected from the beach drift. The amounts of fish, urchin and crab remains in the upper part ofthe Unit 2 Pleistocene levels in the site are extremely limited; theremay even have been post depositional introductions from the upper,late-Holocene Unit i. Although the possibility of depositionaldisturbance is not considered in detail by the author, Morse notes thatthe rock-shelter is occasionally used by large macropods MacropodsDerived from the Greek, macropod literally means "large footed." Macropods are marsupials belonging to the family Macropodidae, which includes kangaroos, wallabies, tree kangaroos, pademelons, and several others. . From myobservations, these animals often camp during the heat of day inrock-shelters, usually using their large hind feet to create forthemselves a shallow depression. One might suspect that during the16,000 years of human `abandonment, (and at other times when people werenot using the shelter) this activity and the anthropogenic disturbanceoccasioned by subsequent re-occupation could easily produce the downwardmixing (10-15 cm) of the fragments of fishbone, crab and urchin shell.Although Morse carefully (p. 87) notes the limited evidence forexploitation of marine resources at these sites, and effectiveabandonment 19,000-2500 b.p is very clear, this site is cited (Bowdler1990: 338-9; O'Connor et al. 1993 100) as suggestive of suggestive ofDecision making adjective Referring to a pattern by LM or imaging, that the interpreter associates with a particular–usually malignant lesion. See Aunt Millie approach, Defensive medicine. earlycoastal occupation or economy. At two other sites near Mandu Mandu Rock-shelter excavated by Morse(1993) coastal resources were used, but that use is probablymaterial-culture oriented and not economic in the sense of a coastaladaptation. On the North West Cape, at Koolan Shelter 2 (O'Connor 1989)reports a stratigraphy stratigraphy,branch of geology specifically concerned with the arrangement of layered rocks (see stratification). Stratigraphy is based on the law of superposition, which states that in a normal sequence of rock layers the youngest is on top and the oldest on the of an upper Holocene shell-rich midden, and alower deposit (c. 30,000 b.p.) which represents the oldest dated site incoastal northern Australia and provide[s] firm evidence for a wellestablished coastal economy by the terminal Pleistocene/early Holocene,(p. 92). No quantities or species found in this midden are tabled butthe author notes (p. 100):The midden horizon varied from reddish brown to brown Munsell 5Yr 4/3and 7.5Yr4/2 (pH 8.5) and contained marine shells which were notconspicuous during excavation but were recovered in reasonablequantities from the sieve.Given the high visibility of shell, a marine component which declaresitself only in the sieve does not amount to a coastal economy. Similarly, on the north-west coastal platform at the MontebelloIslands, Veth (1993) excavated Noala Cave finding an early (c. 27,000b.p.) date on a Polymesoda coaxans (cf. Geloina coaxons) valve. The siteis apparently unoccupied until c. 10,000-75000 b.p., after which theislands were apparently abandoned. Although no quantitative data arepresented, Veth stresses (p. 46) the presence of humans on the coast andthe importance of a plains economy identified by a diversity ofmedium-sized terrestrial mammals. Other potential coastal sites of the Transition such as WallenWallen (Neal & Stock 1986) and the Nara Inlet Site (Barker 1989;1991provide no convincing evidence for coastal economies dating to theperiod. Victoria and South Australia Godfrey's (1989) survey of coastal western Victoria suggesteda two-part (early-holocene and late-holocene@ sequence whereshell-fishing was practised throughout the last 8500 years. The earlypart (>5000 b.p.) is marked by the exploitation of the rocky shoregenera Mytilus, Ostrea and Brachidontes., one sample of the sandy shoregenus Donax returned a determination of c. 6800 b.p. (1989: table 2).Six of the eight determinations <5,000 b.p. were for Donax, theremaining two for Brachidontes. It is unreported whether the datingsamples reflect the relative abundance of shellfish collected at thesesites; if they do, then those dating to the Transition are rocky-shoretypes. Other coastal sites in the region (Lourandos, 1983; Head 1983;1985) show use of the coast in the Late Holocene and very littleindication of marine exploitation before that time. In South Australia, Draper (1987) found a short sequence (c.7500-6800 b.p.) at the Cape du Couedic Cape du Couedic is the south western point of Kangaroo Island, situated at off the coast of South Australia. Cape du Couedic was named in 1803 by French explorer Nicolas Baudin in honour of his friend and famous French sea captain Charles rock-shelter on Kangaroo Islanddating to the very end of the Transition when sea level closelyapproximated its present position. Draper identifies several thousandbone fragments as belonging to a range of species including reptiles,large macropods and a variety of small mammals. The bones of numeroussea-lion indicate marine hunting, but the shellfish are represented byrocky-shore limpets and periwinkles. Draper (1987:5) observesIt is interesting to note that potential food sources from rock poolsand deeper water around the cape are virtually absent. There is no signof crayfish crayfishor crawfish,freshwater crustacean smaller than but structurally very similar to its marine relative the lobster, and found in ponds and streams in most parts of the world except Africa. Crayfish grow some 3 to 4 in. (7.6–10. , only one piece of broken abalone shell, and a single tine tine(tin) a prong or pointed projection on an implement, as on a fork. tinen.1. The slender pointed end of an instrument, such as an explorer used in dentistry.2. fish vertebrae fish vertebraeRadiology A descriptor for biconcave, fish-like vertebrae, caused by infarction and central bone collapse due to thrombosis of the vertebral arteries, a finding typical of sickle cell anemia, which often occurs before the 2nd (probably from the stomach contents of a sea lion). Discussion On the Australian mainland, sample sizes are small andpreservation/visibility of coastal sites of the Transition age (andolder) will continue to be a problem. The sites on the precipitouscoastline of Melanesian islands show that breadth of diet in thePleistocene went well beyond coastal foraging, suggesting a generalizedcomplex foraging pattern over all local ecozones, excepting the openocean. These data render pointless any debate of coastal versusterrestrial economy. This is underscored by the sites of northwestAustralia which Veth (1993: 46) interprets as a blended economy oflittoral littoral/lit��to��ral/ (lit��ah-r'l) pertaining to the shore of a large body of water. littoralpertaining to the shore. and arid-zoned terrestrial species. In this and in otherregions, the marginal use of marine food, or the use of marine shell formaterial-culture purposes do not amount to markers of a focussed coastaleconomy. When do a few shells become a midden, when does a midden becomea coastal occupation, when does a coastal occupation become a coastaleconomy? Australian coastal archaeology is theoretically andmethodologically linked to prehistories of other continents by theshared effects of post-glacial sea-level rise. Because the last marinetransgression was driven by global glacio-eustatic phenomena thisproblem is not unique to Australia. The impact of the last marinetransgression arcs over the Pleistocene Holocene Transition, andarchaeologists working on coastlines everywhere (Bailey & Parkington1988) are confronted by similar and challenging issues. Now-familiarthemes unite studies of coastal archaeology in such distant places asthe Americas, Africa, Asia, Europe and Australia: * Did people gravitatenaturally to the rich and easily obtained molluscan resources of marineintertidals? were sea-mammals a significant human food resource?: * Whenand how did fishing become important?: what place did watercraft play incoastal life * How do coastal economies relate to adjacent terrestrialenvironments and resources found there? Australia has contributedsignificantly to generating these questions and may offer some insightsfor coastal archaeology of the Transition elsewhere.Acknowledgements. I am much in debt to Jim O'Connell and JimAllen for important suggestions for the text. and to Ericka Luckel whodrew the figures. ReferencesAllen H. 1995. The time of the mangroves: changes in mid-Holoceneestuarine es��tu��a��rine?adj.1. Of, relating to, or found in an estuary.2. 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