The scientific method and other bases for evaluation procedures.

The scientific method and other bases for evaluation procedures. THE PURPOSE of the present work is to provide fundamentals forapproaching the task of developing and applying the varied types ofevaluation instruments and procedures. In other words Adv. 1. in other words - otherwise stated; "in other words, we are broke"put differently , now that we knowwhat evaluation is for, how do we go about it? How can a teacher bestobtain evaluation results that will be accurate and trustworthy? This is a problem to which the methods of science can be applied.The teacher needs answers to questions pertaining per��tain?intr.v. per��tained, per��tain��ing, per��tains1. To have reference; relate: evidence that pertains to the accident.2. to his students. Thescientific method is one of the most powerful of all the approaches yetdevised for obtaining answers to questions. It has been usedsuccessfully to answer such questions as these: What is the function ofblood in the human body? What is the cause of tuberculosis tuberculosis(TB), contagious, wasting disease caused by any of several mycobacteria. The most common form of the disease is tuberculosis of the lungs (pulmonary consumption, or phthisis), but the intestines, bones and joints, the skin, and the genitourinary, ? How canpolio polio:see poliomyelitis. be prevented? How can messages be sent over great distances? Howcan objects be placed in orbit around the Earth? How can atomic energy atomic energy:see nuclear energy. be controlled so as to serve man's purposes? The methods that were used in answering each of these questionshave some characteristics in common that have a general application. Infact, science has become so much a part of our daily lives that many ofthese characteristics can be found in the ways we solve everydayproblems. Suppose, for example, that a boy has a battery-powered lighton his bicycle. Suppose, further, that when he tries to use the light,he finds it does not work. How might he approach his problem? He mightthink first that the switch is not all the way on, so he might trysnapping the switch back and forth a time or two. If this fails, hemight check to see whether the batteries were installed properly and aremaking good contact. If this fails, he might reason that the bulb bulb,thickened, fleshy plant bud, usually formed under the surface of the soil, which carries the plant over from one blooming season to another. It may have many fleshy layers (as in the onion and hyacinth) or thin dry scales (as in some lilies)—both of which hasburned out. If replacing the bulb does not correct the difficulty, hemight have reason to believe that one of the wires has broken. If hefinds the wires in good shape, he might then conclude that the batteriesare dead. For the purpose of this illustration, let us say that when hereplaces the batteries, the light functions again. Many of the steps that the boy took in this example are similar tosome of those that scientists take in their studies. For example, he hada clear conception of the problem that was to serve as the base of hisinvestigation. Second, he formulated for��mu��late?tr.v. for��mu��lat��ed, for��mu��lat��ing, for��mu��lates1. a. To state as or reduce to a formula.b. To express in systematic terms or concepts.c. a number of possible solutions tothe problem. And third, each of these possible solutions was tested tosee whether it would work. Teachers are expected to be able to cope with more complex problemsthan a nonfunctioning bicycle light but not so complex as to require ahigh level of specialized spe��cial��ize?v. spe��cial��ized, spe��cial��iz��ing, spe��cial��iz��esv.intr.1. To pursue a special activity, occupation, or field of study.2. scientific discipline. Rather, what is hopedfor is that the teacher will gradually become more and more skillful skill��ful?adj.1. Possessing or exercising skill; expert. See Synonyms at proficient.2. Characterized by, exhibiting, or requiring skill. atapplying a quite small number of easily understood principles which havewide implications. That is, in the evaluation phase of his work, theteacher should do his best to function as a practitioner of appliedscience. Even though the scientific method seems to have great potential foranswering educational questions, there is no intent to imply that alleducational problems can be solved scientifically. For example,decisions on the goals for an educational program are matters ofjudgment; they cannot be made by conducting a scientific inquiry. It istrue, of course, that scientific studies can be made that will yieldvaluable results in connection with the choice of goals, but the actualmaking of the decisions is a matter of value judgment, not scientificinquiry. In addition, the choice of teaching strategies and of the morespecific actions of teachers for facilitating learning will remainprincipally artistic aspects of teaching--at least until researchprovides answers to a great number of questions on teaching-learningprocesses. The reader should bear in mind that it is the scientific methodthat we are considering here, not the content of previous scientificfindings. Unfortunately, some courses in science are taught with suchgreat emphasis on the content of scientific knowledge that students cometo think of science and scientific knowledge as equivalent terms. Theaccumulated ac��cu��mu��late?v. ac��cu��mu��lat��ed, ac��cu��mu��lat��ing, ac��cu��mu��latesv.tr.To gather or pile up; amass. See Synonyms at gather.v.intr.To mount up; increase. body of scientific knowledge is, of course, of vastimportance in human affairs, but our main concern here is not with theknowledge obtained by science but with the methods used in obtainingthat knowledge. Describing the scientific method is not an easy task. In fact, itis a somewhat risky venture in view of the fact that even our mostskilled scientists do not agree on the details of how a scientistoperates. (1) There seem, however, to be some general characteristics ofscientific inquiry that are manifested in the work of large numbers ofscientists. The purpose here is to list a few characteristics that seemto be rather generally accepted and that are at the same time the onesmost directly related to the tasks of educational evaluation Educational evaluation is the evaluation process of characterizing and appraising some aspect/s of an educational process.There are two common purposes in educational evaluation which are, at times, in conflict with one another. . Thus, thecharacteristics listed are restricted to those believed to be the mostbasic to developing and applying techniques of evaluation. Major Phases in the Scientific Method Although the application of the scientific method need not follow aset pattern, the following major phases can be identified in manyscientific investigations: (2) 1. A felt need exists. This need can be some felt difficulty inadapting means to an end, in identifying the character of an object, orin explaining an unexpected event. 2. The problem is formulated. A clear-cut problem or questionrelated to the felt need is identified and carefully stated. 3. Hypotheses are formulated. Possible solutions to the problem orsuggested explanations are formulated. They may be based on hunches,guesses, a theory, or on other sources of ideas for possible solutions. 4. Data are collected. Information is collected that is related tothe hypotheses formulated in the previous phase. 5. Conclusions are drawn. The data are analyzed an��a��lyze?tr.v. an��a��lyzed, an��a��lyz��ing, an��a��lyz��es1. To examine methodically by separating into parts and studying their interrelations.2. Chemistry To make a chemical analysis of.3. in relation to thehypotheses in order to draw conclusions about the best solution,technique, or explanation. 6. The conclusions are analyzed. The solution is evaluated in thelight of expectations about future needs. It is most important to note that the foregoing steps need not befollowed in a rigid sequence. A characteristic of most scientificinvestigations is a shuttling Dot line printers use shuttle mechanisms to build a line of dots (dot row) by moving the print mechanism horizontally whilst rendering dots. Different manufacturers use different tecniques. back and forth between different phases ofthe process. For example, improved formulations of the problem statementare often made at many points during the process of a scientific study.Hypotheses may occur to the scientist not merely in that phase betweenformulation formulation/for��mu��la��tion/ (for?mu-la��shun) the act or product of formulating.American Law Institute Formulation of the problem and collection of data but also during theprocess of collecting and analyzing the data. The value of listing thesephases, therefore, is not in determining a strict serial order ofoperations In arithmetic and algebra, when a number or expression is both preceded and followed by a binary operation, a rule is required for which operation should be applied first. From the earliest use of mathematical notation, multiplication took precedence over addition, whichever side of a ; rather, it is in calling attention to the kinds of functionsthat usually need to be accomplished in a scientific study. It is also important to emphasize that the foregoing steps aretypically applied in an approximate continuing cycle. In a sense, theprocess never ends. As new data are obtained and analyzed, thusproviding new conclusions, the new conclusions are often found tosuggest new problems or new aspects of the original problem and newhypotheses that should be tested. In other words, by continuing throughrepeated cycles of the phases, scientists are able to obtain more andmore precise scientific knowledge by progressive refinement Progressive Refinement is a ray tracing algorithm that quickly reveals coarse structure of an image, and gradually reveals additional detail over time.The first pixel is rendered as a single rectangle occupying the entire work area. of theirstatements of problems, of formulations of hypotheses, and ofconclusions drawn from the analysis of data. The steps in the scientific method can easily be translated intosteps for developing an evaluation instrument. For example, Table 1shows how steps for constructing a classroom achievement test can bederived from the steps in the scientific method. Characteristics of the Scientific Method An important characteristic of the scientific method is that itprovides a means of checking the accuracy or validity of assertionsagainst factual evidence. (3) For example, if a friend told you that hehad discovered a cure for the common cold, what would your reaction be?It might be something like "Well, I'll have to see if it worksbefore I believe it." In other words, the basic meaning of thischaracteristic is about the same as that of the old saying"I'm from Missouri. You'll have to show me." As thereader well knows, it is easy to find people who are willing torecommend "surefire" remedies for the common cold. They rangeall the way from mustard plasters mustard plastern.A medicinal plaster made with a pastelike mixture of powdered black mustard, flour, and water, used especially as a counterirritant. to antibiotics AntibioticsDefinitionAntibiotics may be informally defined as the subgroup of anti-infectives that are derived from bacterial sources and are used to treat bacterial infections. . So far, however, nonehas met the test contained in this characteristic of the scientificmethod; that is, when subjected to rigorous, controlled investigation ofthe evidence, no remedy for the common cold has been found to work.Certain preparations may relieve the distress of a cold, but none willactually cure it. Another example of the application of this characteristic is in thetesting of the polio vaccine Two polio vaccines are used throughout the world to combat polio. The first was developed by Jonas Salk, first tested in 1952, and announced to the world by Salk on April 12, 1955. It consists of an injected dose of inactivated (dead) poliovirus. . Dr. Salk was not content merely to preparethe vaccine vaccinePreparation containing either killed or weakened live microorganisms or their toxins, introduced by mouth, by injection, or by nasal spray to stimulate production of antibodies against an infectious agent. on the basis of theory or on his expert judgment as to whatought to work. After the vaccine was prepared, it was repeatedly testedwith animals and humans to be sure that it actually produced the effectsanticipated. Let us now examine a relationship of this characteristic of scienceto the making of classroom evaluations. One illustration is inconnection with the concept of validity in testing. Makers of good testsare not satisfied merely to assemble a group of questions on the basisof theory and call it a valid test. They seek evidence that the testreally does Warren Trotter, better known as Really Doe, is an American rapper from Chicago, Illinois. He is affiliated with Kanye West and his G.O.O.D. Music family and label. DiscographySongs"Day By Day" "Plastic" "The Love" yield scores that can be validly interpreted as measures ofwhat was intended. For example, Alfred Binet Noun 1. Alfred Binet - French psychologist remembered for his studies of the intellectual development of children (1857-1911)Binet did more than compile To translate a program written in a high-level programming language into machine language. See compiler. acleverly contrived con��trived?adj.Obviously planned or calculated; not spontaneous or natural; labored: a novel with a contrived ending.con��triv list of questions for his intelligence tests, whichhe believed would differentiate between children of high and low mentalability. He took the additional step of administering the test questionsto children of differing ages and found that older children did in factanswer the questions correctly more frequently than the youngerchildren. It is generally accepted that mental ability increases withage, so that the results tended to support the claim for validity ofinterpretations based on the test. In other words, the goal here, as inall the other applications of this characteristic, is to get the factson what actually happens--to make certain that the stated assertions arein line with evidence that can be agreed upon Adj. 1. agreed upon - constituted or contracted by stipulation or agreement; "stipulatory obligations"stipulatorynoncontroversial, uncontroversial - not likely to arouse controversy by impartial Favoring neither; disinterested; treating all alike; unbiased; equitable, fair, and just. observers. The second characteristic of the scientific method is that oneuses, to the best of his ability, all the available and relevant data.(4) The scientist does not restrict his use of evidence to only thatwhich supports his theory, hopes, or expectations. He pays as muchattention to evidence contrary to his own ideas as to that whichsupports them. Nor does he limit the evidence to that which is easy toobtain. He conscientiously con��sci��en��tious?adj.1. Guided by or in accordance with the dictates of conscience; principled: a conscientious decision to speak out about injustice.2. seeks out all the information that pertainsto his investigation even if it requires years of tedious search throughdocuments, difficult experiments, and journeys to the far ends of theearth or even into space. An application of this characteristic to educational evaluation isin connection with the interpretation of vocational interestinventories. These inventories contain questions about the preferencesof the individual that are related to the kinds of occupations that hewould probably find most satisfying. Users of these devices sometimesfall into the trap of attempting to make an interpretation based uponthe results of the inventory only. This is risky because success andsatisfaction in a job are not dependent upon interests alone. Such adecision should be based on not only patterns of interest but alsomeasures of abilities, teachers' estimates of the individual'sinterests and abilities, opinions of parents, and all the otheravailable and relevant information. Another illustration is related to evaluation of achievement.Suppose, for example, that a teacher wished to know the extent to whichhis students had mastered concepts and operations involving fractions.He could easily give a quiz A quiz is a form of game or mind sport in which the players (as individuals or in teams) attempt to answer questions correctly. Quizzes are also brief assessments used in education and similar fields to measure growth in knowledge, abilities, and/or skills. that would provide a partial answer to thisquestion. It would be a mistake, however, to base conclusions on theresults of the test alone. Instead, the teacher should make use of thetest results in conjunction with his own observations of pupils'work with fractions, with results obtained on previous tests, and withinformation that the pupils themselves can provide on learningdifficulties they have encountered. It can be seen from these illustrations that the characteristic ofthe scientific method involving the use of all the available andrelevant data is the basis for an important general rule forinterpreting evaluation results; namely, results obtained with anevaluation instrument or technique should be interpreted in the light ofall the other relevant measures or observations. An additional implication of this characteristic is of majorimportance. It is the basis of the concept of comprehensiveness. If atest or other evaluation device is comprehensive, it assesses all therelevant aspects of what it was intended to measure. For example, acomprehensive test on early American history from 1492 to 1789 wouldhave questions on early explorations, the colonial period Colonial Period may generally refer to any period in a country's history when it was subject to administration by a colonial power. Korea under Japanese rule Colonial America See alsoColonialism , and therevolutionary period. If all of the questions were focused on, say, theteacher's favorite topic of Washington at Valley Forge Valley Forge,on the Schuylkill River, SE Pa., NW of Philadelphia. There, during the American Revolution, the main camp of the Continental Army was established (Dec., 1777–June, 1778) under the command of Gen. George Washington. , the testmight be a good one for this narrow span of time, but it would not be acomprehensive test of early American history from 1492 to 1789. In otherwords, the test limited to Washington at Valley Forge would not make useof all the relevant student responses that could be made availablethrough using a wider variety of questions. The third characteristic of the scientific method is that its useinvolves a logical and thorough analysis of results. (5) If thereasoning in the analysis of results in an investigation is illogical,the conclusions are likely to be wrong. If the analysis lacksthoroughness, relationships in the data may be ignored that wouldsubstantially change the conclusions. One implication of this characteristic for evaluation is concernedwith rating scales. Consider a rating scale for use in judging thequality of handwriting HANDWRITING, evidence. Almost every person's handwriting has something whereby it may be distinguished from the writing of others, and this difference is sometimes intended by the term. 2. , for example. With such a scale it might bepossible to define five levels of quality: excellent, good, fair, poor,or unsatisfactory. It is clear that these five levels need much more inthe way of definition of what is characteristic of writing samples ateach level, yet some people mistakenly mis��tak��en?v.Past participle of mistake.adj.1. Wrong or incorrect in opinion, understanding, or perception.2. Based on error; wrong: a mistaken view of the situation. believe that the accuracy of sucha scale can be improved merely by attaching such numerical numericalexpressed in numbers, i.e. Arabic numerals of 0 to 9 inclusive.numerical nomenclaturea numerical code is used to indicate the words, or other alphabetical signals, intended. labels to thevarious categories as a 5 to the excellent level, a 4 to the good level,a 3 to the fair level, and so forth. Such people seem to believe thatassigning as��sign?tr.v. as��signed, as��sign��ing, as��signs1. To set apart for a particular purpose; designate: assigned a day for the inspection.2. a number for each of the various levels and then obtainingaverages of the scores would result in a more accurate measure. Itshould be apparent to the reader that no amount of manipulation with orwithout numbers can possibly increase the accuracy of the basic data.Moreover, using numbers for the different levels in this rating scaleand manipulating them arithmetically assumes that the scale has acharacteristic which it does not in fact have--equal units at all pointsalong the scale. For example, what evidence is there to assure us thatthe difference in quality between a "4" sample and a"5" sample of handwriting is the same as the difference inquality between a "2" sample and a "3" sample? Thus,obtaining an average rating in this way is inappropriate and illogicaland therefore violates this characteristic of the scientific method. The fourth characteristic of the scientific method is sometimesreferred to as intellectual honesty HonestySee also Righteousness, Virtuousness.Alethiaancient Greek personification of truth. [Gk. Myth.: Zimmerman, 18]Better Business Bureaunationwide system of organizations investigating dishonest business practices. [Am. . (6) This characteristic waspartially explained in connection with the second one, which concernsusing all the available and relevant data. The scientist always seeksthe truth; he is not trying to show that he is right. Thus, throughoutthe scientific process, he attempts to deal with the data and the logicin an open-minded, unbiased, objective manner. He eagerly seeks relevantinformation regardless of how the results may upset his presenttheoretical formulations or what it might otherwise cost him. This characteristic, too, has implications for classroomevaluation. Teachers are unlikely to distort results deliberately tomake them turn out the way they desire, but sometimes teachers do fallinto ways of thinking that border on intellectual dishonesty Intellectual dishonesty is the advocacy of a position known to be false. Rhetoric is used to advance an agenda or to reinforce one's deeply held beliefs in the face of overwhelming contrary evidence. . It iswidely recognized, for example, that a teacher's liking ordisliking for a student influences his evaluations of the student'sschoolwork. That is, if a teacher has a favorable fa��vor��a��ble?adj.1. Advantageous; helpful: favorable winds.2. Encouraging; propitious: a favorable diagnosis.3. impression of thechild, he is likely to pay more attention to things the child does welland less to those done poorly. (7) If teachers are not constantly onguard against it, their evaluations of students will be biased in favorof upon the side of; favorable to; for the advantage of.See also: favor those whose personalities are compatible with their own and againstthose whose personalities are incompatible incompatibleadj. 1) inconsistent. 2) unmatching. 3) unable to live together as husband and wife due to irreconcilable differences. In no-fault divorce states, if one of the spouses desires to end the marriage, that fact proves incompatibility, and a divorce . To be intellectually honest,therefore, the teacher must make every effort to take his own biases andpreferences into account. The fifth characteristic of the scientific method is that theinquiry is focused. (8) Scientific observation is not aimless gazing;the scientist is always looking for Looking forIn the context of general equities, this describing a buy interest in which a dealer is asked to offer stock, often involving a capital commitment. Antithesis of in touch with. something rather specific. Heachieves focus in his investigation by clearly defining his problem orthe research question and by setting up hypotheses or possible solutionsto the problem. His data collecting is then directed at obtaining thosepieces of evidence that can be used in testing the hypotheses or thepossible solutions. For example, little progress was made in astronomy astronomy,branch of science that studies the motions and natures of celestial bodies, such as planets, stars, and galaxies; more generally, the study of matter and energy in the universe at large. so long as men merely looked at the sky in wonder. Only as they began toformulate formulate/for��mu��late/ (for��mu-lat)1. to state in the form of a formula.2. to prepare in accordance with a prescribed or specified method. specific and testable ideas about relative movements ofdifferent heavenly heav��en��ly?adj.1. Sublime; delightful; enchanting.2. Of or relating to the firmament; celestial: the sun, the moon, and other heavenly bodies.3. bodies, about changes of light intensity with time,and so forth did they make discoveries which eventually led to thescience of astronomy. The same applies to making observations in the classroom. A skilledobserver does not go into a classroom and merely expose himself to thestimuli of what is taking place. He selects most of what he is toobserve, for it is impossible to attend to all the aspects of classroomactivity at one time. Thus, the classroom observer should use what heknows about educational principles and the learning process to guide himin determining what is most important to observe. For example, oneeducational principle of great importance is that classroom activitiesshould be organized so as to achieve the instructional objectives. Theobserver might, therefore, note the objectives for the particular lessonhe is observing and then see what student behaviors he can identify thatindicate that the pupils have or have not achieved the objectives. The importance of focus in scientific investigations is notdiminished di��min��ish?v. di��min��ished, di��min��ish��ing, di��min��ish��esv.tr.1. a. To make smaller or less or to cause to appear so.b. by the fact that the scientist should also be alert tounexpected developments. (9) Some of the most important scientificdiscoveries--the vacuum tube vacuum tube:see electron tube. vacuum tubeElectron tube consisting of a sealed glass or metal enclosure from which the air has been withdrawn. It was used in early electronic circuitry to control a flow of electrons. , transistors, and penicillin penicillin,any of a group of chemically similar substances obtained from molds of the genus Penicillium that were the first antibiotic agents to be used successfully in the treatment of bacterial infections in humans. , forinstance--were made by accident. Even though these discoveries wereoutside the focal point focal pointn.See focus. of the investigations in which they occurred, itis important to note that the investigations did nevertheless havefocus. Both kinds of attention are important: attention to the phenomenapertaining to the specific purpose of the investigation and attention tounexpected developments that may lead to important findings. This dual kind of attention is also important for teachers makingclassroom observations. To make good use of opportunities forobservation; the teacher must be looking for something in particular,but he must also make use of opportunities to note additional thingsthat may be important. The sixth characteristic of the scientific method is that theaccuracy and reliability of measurements or observations are as high aspossible. (10) Astronomy again provides an example. Great progress wasmade when instruments were developed that would reveal the spectra ofstars and the wavelengths of light at different points in the spectrum.As another example, it should be obvious to the reader that the scienceof physics could not have advanced to its present stage without theprior development of accurate instruments for measuring the directionand magnitude of forces, the intensity of light, the amount of electriccurrent, and so forth. This should not be taken to mean, however, that one cannot bescientific unless quantitative data are involved. The idea of accuracyalso applies to recording data that are not in the form of measurements.In the case of some kinds of evidence, there is no indication of howmuch; rather, it is a question of whether something exists or does notexist. For example, an anthropologist studying a primitive society mightmake an observation as to whether the society is matriarchal ma��tri��arch?n.1. A woman who rules a family, clan, or tribe.2. A woman who dominates a group or an activity.3. A highly respected woman who is a mother. (mother-dominated) or patriarchal pa��tri��ar��chal?adj.1. Of, relating to, or characteristic of a patriarch.2. Of or relating to a patriarchy: a patriarchal social system.3. (father-dominated). Numerical valuesneed not be involved in recording this kind of information, yet accuracyis important. It is also important that the data be recorded in the mostprecise language possible. (11) To illustrate the importance of preciselanguage in scientific investigation, note that physicians require moreprecise terminology for describing organs of the human body than dolaymen. This characteristic has very important implications for educationalevaluation. The concept of test reliability derives directly from it. Aneducational test should be reliable for precisely the same reasons thata chemist's scales should give consistent measurements. If testscores are reliable, they, too, are consistent. Test results are of verylittle value if they show a child to be at the sixth-grade level inarithmetic achievement one day and at the second-grade level the next.The highest possible consistency or reliability is desired, of course,although perfect reliability is never attained in educational tests orin any other kind of measurement. It is necessary, therefore, to haveways of determining the extent to which a test or other measure isreliable. It makes no more sense to draw conclusions about a student onthe basis of a test for which the reliability is unknown than to set theprice of a precious stone on the basis of its weight determined by ascale of unknown accuracy. It should be noted that reliability is important not just in thecase of tests but in the case of all evaluation instruments andtechniques. If results obtained with a rating scale are highlyunreliable, the use of the scale is questionable. If an interestinventory yields results which vary greatly from time to time, its valueis severely limited. If recorded observations fail to yield any sort ofconsistent (reliable) pattern, recording them serves little if anypractical purpose. Although there is no escaping the requirement of reliability,validity is even more important. In other words, it is more important tobe able to make valid interpretations of test scores than it is for thescores to be precise. Valid results, though somewhat crude, are moreuseful than highly precise measures that are not truly relevant to whatwas intended to be measured. Consider the case of the teacher who uses scores on a standardized standardizedpertaining to data that have been submitted to standardization procedures.standardized morbidity ratesee morbidity rate.standardized mortality ratesee mortality rate. algebra algebra,branch of mathematics concerned with operations on sets of numbers or other elements that are often represented by symbols. Algebra is a generalization of arithmetic and gains much of its power from dealing symbolically with elements and operations (such as test as the basis for final grades in algebra. Students mightcomplain, and properly so, that the standardized test A standardized test is a test administered and scored in a standard manner. The tests are designed in such a way that the "questions, conditions for administering, scoring procedures, and interpretations are consistent" [1] did not providevalid measures of their achievement because it did not cover the subjectmatter in the same way and with the same pattern of emphases as theteacher did in the actual conduct of the class. If this is so, theresults are invalid Null; void; without force or effect; lacking in authority.For example, a will that has not been properly witnessed is invalid and unenforceable. INVALID. In a physical sense, it is that which is wanting force; in a figurative sense, it signifies that which has no effect. for this purpose, no matter how reliable. Theproblem in this example is not consistency; it is in the fact that thescores, though highly reliable, are not fully relevant to what wassupposed to be measured. The seventh characteristic of the scientific method is that ofclassification, which underlies all science. (12) The scientist isunable to conduct systematic studies of phenomena until he is able toidentify and classify clas��si��fy?tr.v. clas��si��fied, clas��si��fy��ing, clas��si��fies1. To arrange or organize according to class or category.2. To designate (a document, for example) as confidential, secret, or top secret. the phenomena. An example is that progress in thestudy of chemistry was greatly facilitated by the development of thetable of chemical elements. The science of botany botany,science devoted to the study of plants. Botany, microbiology, and zoology together compose the science of biology. Humanity's earliest concern with plants was with their practical uses, i.e., for fuel, clothing, shelter, and, particularly, food and drugs. could not have beendeveloped without its intricate classification system. Major progress inchemistry and physics was marked by the development of categories forparticles <onlyinclude> This is a list of particles in particle physics, including currently known and hypothetical elementary particles, as well as the composite particles that can be built up from them. of matter, such as the molecule, atom, nucleus nucleus, in physicsnucleus,in physics, the extremely dense central core of an atom.The Nature of the NucleusComposition , and so forth. Classification is important in educational evaluation, too. Intests of educational achievement, for example, many teachers are contentwith a test that yields but a single score. If the reader thinks aboutit, he will realize, however, that achievement in almost any subject canhardly be regarded as just a single, unitary unitarypertaining to a single object or individual. kind of thing. One'sachievement might be high in certain aspects of the subject but low inothers. These kinds of differences tend to be masked A state of being disabled or cut off. by a test thatyields only a single score. For example, note that there usually aredifferent types of attainment for a particular subject. One type mightinvolve only the recall or memorization mem��o��rize?tr.v. mem��o��rized, mem��o��riz��ing, mem��o��riz��es1. To commit to memory; learn by heart.2. Computer Science To store in memory: of factual information. Anothermay go beyond the level of recall to that of comprehension comprehensionAct of or capacity for grasping with the intellect. The term is most often used in connection with tests of reading skills and language abilities, though other abilities (e.g., mathematical reasoning) may also be examined. . A third typemight be at the level of application, where the concept is not onlycomprehended but also put to use in actual, concrete situations. Afourth type might be at the analytical analytical, analyticpertaining to or emanating from analysis.analytical controlcontrol of confounding by analysis of the results of a trial or test. level, where the student is ableto make not only relatively simple applications but also complexapplications of a variety of concepts in relationship to one another.These categories of educational outcomes are more fully explained inTaxonomy of Educational Objectives The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, often called Bloom's Taxonomy, is a classification of the different objectives and skills that educators set for students (learning objectives). . (13) The taxonomy taxonomy:see classification. taxonomyIn biology, the classification of organisms into a hierarchy of groupings, from the general to the particular, that reflect evolutionary and usually morphological relationships: kingdom, phylum, class, order, is a system forclassifying educational goals. The reader should become familiar withthis reference. The point of the preceding example can be stated by the followingquestion: Would not the results of a test be a great deal more useful ifthey yielded, instead of a single score, a score indicating thestudent's strengths and weaknesses in various areas of the subjectas well as a second pattern of scores indicating his strengths andweaknesses in the various levels of attainment as described in thetaxonomy? It would be of particular significance, for example, to knowthat a particular student achieves extremely well at the lowestlevel--that of simple recall--but does poorly on questions that dealwith comprehension, application, or analysis. One of the greatest values of educational evaluation techniques isthe assistance they provide in the classification of students. Throughapplication of the techniques, students can be classified in terms oftheir potential for school learning, in terms of their motivation forlearning, in terms of particular kinds of learning difficulties to whichthey are prone, in terms of emotional difficulties that interfere withschool learning, in terms of the interests they possess that can be usedto facilitate school learning, and so forth. Without the ability toclassify pupils according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. categories such as these, teachers would bepowerless to carry out an educational program according to the needs orcapacities of the child. The eighth characteristic of the scientific method is thesuspension of judgment Suspension of judgment is a cognitive process and a rational state of mind in which one withholds judgments, particularly on the drawing of moral or ethical conclusions. The opposite of suspension of judgment is premature judgment usually shortened to prejudice. , an essential aspect. (14) A scientist mustresist the temptation TemptationTerror (See HORROR.)appleas fruit of the tree of knowledge in Eden, has come to epitomize temptation. [O.T.: Genesis 3:1–7; Br. Lit. to jump to conclusions on the basis of the firstset of results he obtains. He must discipline himself to wait until allthe evidence is in. In addition, he should suspend judgment until he hascarefully checked and rechecked his data and the logic of the analysis.If possible, he should check his work against that of otherinvestigators to see whether his results are in harmony with theirs.Only after such a process of doubting and painstaking pains��tak��ing?adj.Marked by or requiring great pains; very careful and diligent. See Synonyms at meticulous.n.Extremely careful and diligent work or effort. cross-checksshould conclusions be drawn. It is important to apply the concept of suspending judgment toeducational evaluation. For some teachers this is most difficult. Thewriter has known teachers who claim that, on the very first day ofschool, when they meet their new class for the first time, they can"peg" the students. They say that they can tell which oneswill be studious stu��di��ous?adj.1. a. Given to diligent study: a quiet, studious child.b. Conducive to study.2. , which will be slow learners, and which will causetrouble. Such teachers have not yet learned that first impressions canbe very misleading. Nor have they learned that in some cases their ownattitudes, which were formed on the basis of the first impression, mightactually cause the students to turn out the way they have been labeled.For example, if a student perceives that the teacher expects him to maketrouble, he may actually be encouraged to be a troublemaker. It is thebelief of the writer that it is not only unscientific unscientificUnproven, see there but also morallywrong for a teacher to make snap judgments a judgment formed on the instant without deliberation.See also: Snap about pupils. If he notesthat a certain student is often involved in misbehavior, he should avoidthoughts such as "Well, there's a troublemaker!" Itprobably would be wiser to think more along the following lines:"He seems to give the impression of being a troublemaker, but thismay be wrong. I have not yet seen him in a sufficient number ofsituations to draw conclusions. Perhaps if I continue to work with him,we can find a way of getting along together." The concept ofsuspending judgment should thus be applied on a pervasive pervasive,adj indicates that a condition permeates the entire development of the individual. basisthroughout the entire process of evaluation. Tentative tentative,adj not final or definite, such as an experimental or clinical finding that has not been validated. conclusions mustfrequently be drawn, of course, in order to make practical uses ofevaluation results. Tentativeness as a quality, however, should alwaysbe present. The ninth characteristic of the scientific method is an extensionof the previous one. It is that in applying the scientific method, onestrives for continuing refinement of hypotheses rather than a claim offinal proof. (15) The scientist is, of course, always seeking truth, butwhen he draws his conclusions, he never assumes that he has found thetruth in its final, ultimate form. The scientist never claims to have"proved" something for all time. The importance of this characteristic is underlined by the factthat, in a number of cases, findings that were considered greatdiscoveries in their time have more recently been found to be onlypartially correct. A familiar example is that the earth was once thoughtto be round. It apparently is not; recent measurements indicate that itis slightly pear-shaped. In addition, the diameter is slightly greaterat the equator than from pole to pole Pole to Pole is an eight-part television documentary travel series made for the BBC and released in 1992. The presenter is Michael Palin, this being the second of Palin's major journeys for the BBC. . Another example is the case ofNewton's laws Noun 1. Newton's law - one of three basic laws of classical mechanicslaw of motion, Newton's law of motionlaw of nature, law - a generalization that describes recurring facts or events in nature; "the laws of thermodynamics" of gravitation. Newton's discovery of these lawsrepresented a tremendous advancement in the field of physics. YetEinstein's more recent achievements have shown Newton's lawsto be only close approximations. Even though Einstein's theory isan improvement over Newton's, the former should still not beregarded as the ultimate solution. Instead, it should be regarded as aset of theoretical concepts and hypotheses that perhaps can be refinedeven further. An implication of this characteristic of continuing refinement ofhypotheses for educational evaluation is that in no instance should thecase be considered closed for a student. The teacher should always bewilling to accept new evidence that would change his views about apupil. Moreover, no test is so perfect that a score from it should bethought of as perfect or unchallengeable. There are many possiblefactors, such as errors in scoring or lack of motivation on the part ofthe student taking the test, that can cause large errors in test scores.Regardless of how apparently precise the scores, the teacher shouldalways be ready to accept new information that would change the picture. The tenth characteristic of the scientific method is that a studyshould he replicable. (16) This means that it should be possible forother investigators to repeat the same study to check the results. Ifother investigators cannot obtain the same results as the scientists whoperformed the original inquiry, the results are open to question. It maybe that the results were obtained only because of certain biases orobservational habits of the original investigator. Or it may be that theoriginal investigator made certain systematic errors in his analysis ofdata which would yield significant findings for him but for no one else.For example, he might have made the same error in addition each time headded a column of numbers. One implication of the idea of replicability is that the teachershould keep all records of evaluation results in such a way that otherpersons (for example, the teacher who will have the students next year)can draw the same conclusions from the data that he did. Records shouldbe kept in such a manner that other persons--even those not familiarwith his idiosyncrasies in keeping track of information--can easily findwhat they are looking for. The concept of replicability is related to that of objectivity.Objectivity in evaluation means that assessments are made in such amanner that they reflect the true characteristics of the child withoutdistortion distortion,in electronics, undesired change in an electric signal waveform as it passes from the input to the output of some system or device. In an audio system, distortion results in poor reproduction of recorded or transmitted sound. by the biases or preferences of the teacher or observer. Theso-called objective-type test has been given this name because it makesit possible to eliminate the biases or preferences of the scorer; thatis, no matter who scores a true-false or multiple-choice test, the scorewill turn out the same--assuming, of course, that the scorers understandthe scoring procedures and do not make errors in counting. Objectivity is a greater problem in connection with proceduresinvolving rating scales--scales for judging the quality of a musicalperformance, for example. Objectivity requires that the teacher makeobservations of the pupil by means of his own perceptual per��cep��tu��aladj.Of, based on, or involving perception. processes, withwhatever distortions they may possess, and then make a judgment aboutthe quality of the student's performance in terms of standardswhich he must apply mentally. There are many opportunities forsubjective factors to creep into such a process. The problem ofobjectivity here is great but not so great as to entirely negate ne��gate?tr.v. ne��gat��ed, ne��gat��ing, ne��gates1. To make ineffective or invalid; nullify.2. To rule out; deny. See Synonyms at deny.3. theusefulness of ratings if they are carefully made. The application of rating scales should involve replication In database management, the ability to keep distributed databases synchronized by routinely copying the entire database or subsets of the database to other servers in the network.There are various replication methods. if atall possible. If a number of different raters agree closely in theirratings of a number of individual students, it is likely that theproblem of objectivity has been largely overcome unless all the ratershappen to have the same biases. In other words, by replicating theobservations, a check can be made on the extent to which the ratingswere objectively rendered. In many situations where it is not practicalto replicate rep��li��catev.1. To duplicate, copy, reproduce, or repeat.2. To reproduce or make an exact copy or copies of genetic material, a cell, or an organism.n.A repetition of an experiment or a procedure. each and every rating rendered, it is possible tospot-check them by replicating a sample of, say, one in every 10. It ismost desirable that this kind of replication be accomplished so that thedegree of objectivity can be ascertained as��cer��tain?tr.v. as��cer��tained, as��cer��tain��ing, as��cer��tains1. To discover with certainty, as through examination or experimentation. See Synonyms at discover.2. . Complete objectivity is,however, unattainable with any type of evaluation device. The concept of replicability is also related to the reliability ofa test. (See also the sixth characteristic, accuracy and reliability ofmeasurement.) In fact, one way of estimating reliability is toadminister a test at the beginning of a week and then replicate byadministering it again to the same pupils at the end of the week. If theresults both times are very similar, the test is highly reliable. The eleventh In music or music theory an eleventh is the note eleven scale degrees from the root of a chord and also the interval between the root and the eleventh.Since there are only seven degrees in a diatonic scale the eleventh degree is the same as the subdominant and the interval and final characteristic of the scientific method isthat science is cumulative. (17) Scientific studies should be planned sothat they build upon the findings of earlier investigations. Scientistswill often spend many months in libraries and in corresponding withother scientists in order to locate all of the other studies that mightbe related to the one to be undertaken. By proceeding in a cumulativefashion, we have produced great stores of scientific knowledge. Thisknowledge is not an accumulation of isolated bits and pieces ofinformation; rather, it is increasingly becoming an integrated,inter-related body of knowledge. As each scientist makes hiscontribution, he helps push out the boundaries of knowledge further andfurther into what was once unknown. Because science is cumulative, it follows that educationalevaluation data should also be acquired in cumulative fashion. Ratherthan start afresh a��fresh?adv.Once more; anew; again: start afresh.afreshAdverbonce moreAdv. 1. collecting new data on a new class of students, theteacher should first check to see whether other dependable informationis already available. The information should be recorded in such amanner that additional information can be added by other teachers as thechild moves through different years of the school program. Thiscumulative method of obtaining and recording evaluation data eliminatesa great deal of unnecessary repetition REPETITION, construction of wills. A repetition takes place when the same testator, by the same testamentary instrument, gives to the same legatee legacies of equal amount and of the same kind; in such case the latter is considered a repetition of the former, and the legatee is entitled of effort. Moreover, because ofthe opportunities that the method provides for cross-checks, it shouldadd considerably to the validity of the information obtainable. Ateacher attempting to make the evaluations entirely on his own may nothave enough time or opportunities to observe patterns of performance orbehavior in students that show sufficient consistency. Other Bases for Evaluation Instruments and Procedures It is extremely important in evaluation procedures that, basically,only one kind of evidence be used: evidence of student behavior. Thismay seem strange to the reader at first because the term evaluation nodoubt conjures up visions of test papers, exercises, and the like, inaddition to direct observation of overt Public; open; manifest.The term overt is used in Criminal Law in reference to conduct that moves more directly toward the commission of an offense than do acts of planning and preparation that may ultimately lead to such conduct. OVERT. Open. behavior. It is true thatevaluation does encompass these kinds of devices, but it is also truethat these devices serve no other purpose than that of obtainingevidence of students' behavior--physical or mental. For example, astudent's answers to test questions are records indicatingsomething about how he behaved mentally when he was responding to thetest. A student's answers to a questionnaire are, similarly,records produced by his mental operations as he considered thequestions. Other clues to a person's mental behavior can beobtained by analyzing the objects that he has produced. For example, astudent's drawing can be considered a record of his behavior. Socan a mathematical model Note: The term model has a different meaning in model theory, a branch of mathematical logic. An artifact which is used to illustrate a mathematical idea is also called a mathematical model and this usage is the reverse of the sense explained below. or apparatus that the student set up in ascience experiment. Anecdotal anecdotal/an��ec��do��tal/ (an?ek-do��t'l) based on case histories rather than on controlled clinical trials. anecdotaladjective Unsubstantiated; occurring as single or isolated event. records, of course, are written records ofovert behavior that has been observed. Another basic factor that must always be taken into account indeveloping evaluation procedures is that if evaluations are made, theymust be made in terms of some sort of criteria or standards. This maynot apply in situations where the purpose is not to make evaluativejudgments but merely to obtain descriptions. However, if an evaluationis to be made, it must be made against criteria or standards. Forexample, in achievement evaluation, an attempt is made to determine theextent to which the pupils are attaining the objectives of instruction.At the point where the teacher or someone else tries to ascertainwhether the objectives have been achieved to a desirable degree, thenecessity for something to indicate criteria or standards for what isdesirable is obvious. No matter what type of evaluation is beingconsidered--whether it has to do with assessing achievement, mentalability, personality traits, or even unplanned effects--the process ofevaluation cannot be accomplished until standards or criteria, or somesort of frame of reference indicating desirable qualities, have beendeveloped. Philosophical considerations constitute the final basic factor withregard to how the task of evaluation should be accomplished. Certaintechniques that might be applied in evaluation would conflict with ourphilosophical value system. For example, we would not consider itethically correct to use stress as a means of eliciting behavior forpurposes of educational evaluation. This would be the case if a teacherresorted to frightening a child into admitting his weak-nesses as ameans of obtaining evaluation information. Another philosophical consideration is that evaluations should notbe made in personal areas of the child's life except as clearlynecessary in connection with the purposes of the school. Even if it isclearly necessary to make such evaluations, the teacher should realizethat it is often wise to obtain the approval of parents and schoolauthorities before probing into such areas as political beliefs, sexexperiences, or religious preferences. Most importantly Adv. 1. most importantly - above and beyond all other consideration; "above all, you must be independent"above all, most especially , if schoolassessments do involve collecting information in personal areas such asthese, the information should be treated confidentially. No one shouldbe allowed to see such information unless the nature of his work clearlyjustifies it and unless his integrity in keeping the informationconfidential can be established. That should go without saying, butunfortunately some teachers do need to be reminded occasionally thatthey should not gossip about confidential information Noun 1. confidential information - an indication of potential opportunity; "he got a tip on the stock market"; "a good lead for a job"steer, tip, wind, hint, lead on children ortheir parents. Such information is not a suitable subject for lunch hourchats or other informal conversations. Many school officials are reluctant to release certain kinds ofevaluation results, including test scores, to parents for similarreasons. Some parents are inclined to make use of such information inways that seem harmful to the healthy development of their children.Probably the best rule to follow is to release such information toparents only when there is a clear need to do so--and then only afterthey sufficiently understand the meaning and limitations of the scores. Conclusion This work sets forth fundamental principles and considerations thatpoint the way to how educational evaluation should be accomplished. Itis assumed that in this effort we wish to be as scientific as possible.This means that educational evaluation should be practiced as an appliedscience. It means that tests and other evaluation instruments should bedeveloped, to the maximum extent possible, with the same kind of rigor rigor/rig��or/ (rig��er) [L.] chill; rigidity.rigor mor��tis? the stiffening of a dead body accompanying depletion of adenosine triphosphate in the muscle fibers. used for instruments in other sciences. It means that when less formalprocedures are applied, such as observation by the teacher during aclass discussion, they should be applied in such a manner that conceptsof the scientific method are employed insofar in��so��far?adv.To such an extent.Adv. 1. insofar - to the degree or extent that; "insofar as it can be ascertained, the horse lung is comparable to that of man"; "so far as it is reasonably practical he should practice as possible. Theprinciples of scientific inquiry should not be abandoned even whenrelatively crude procedures are being used. To the extent, therefore, that it is necessary for teachers to usetechniques of evaluation, it is necessary for them to acquire somecompetency COMPETENCY, evidence. The legal fitness or ability of a witness to be heard on the trial of a cause. This term is also applied to written or other evidence which may be legally given on such trial, as, depositions, letters, account-books, and the like. 2. as practicing scientists. This may seem like a large order.It is not something that the reader can expect to accomplish fully bytaking a course or two in college or even by reading this work! Rather,it is an ability that a teacher should try to develop as a lifetimecareer goal. The hope is not that this book will serve as a "bag oftricks" that will enable teachers to do so easily. Instead, it ishoped that the book will provide the proper orientation for the readerand help him to make a good start in a productive direction. As the steps in the scientific method and their implications foreducational evaluation were developed in this text, it was pointed outthat they provide the basic structure of the steps for developingevaluation instruments. Early in the text an achievement test was usedas an illustration to show how steps in constructing evaluationinstruments are related to steps in the scientific method. A generalized gen��er��al��izedadj.1. Involving an entire organ, as when an epileptic seizure involves all parts of the brain.2. Not specifically adapted to a particular environment or function; not specialized.3. formulation of the steps for preparing any instrument or technique foreducational evaluation is the following: 1. Recognition of a need for information. 2. Clarification of the type of information to be sought and of thespecific kind of instrument or technique needed. 3. Specification of the particular learning outcomes, abilities, orother characteristics to be evaluated or assessed--the hypotheses orobjectives to guide the collection and analysis of results. 4. Collection of data. a. Selection of situations, problems, or stimuli that will give thestudent opportunities to express the kinds of behavior specified in step3. b. Provision of a means for obtaining a record of the behavior. c. Formulation of the terms or units that will be used to summarize sum��ma��rize?intr. & tr.v. sum��ma��rized, sum��ma��riz��ing, sum��ma��riz��esTo make a summary or make a summary of.sum the records of behavior obtained. d. Administration of the instrument or technique. e. Scoring or summary of results. 5. Analysis of results in comparison with the hypothetical Hypothetical is an adjective, meaning of or pertaining to a hypothesis. See: Hypothesis HypotheticalHypothetical (album) learningoutcomes, abilities, or other characteristics specified in step 3, andwith relevant standards. 6. Checking results against the general criteria for educationalevaluations or assessments: objectivity, reliability, comprehensiveness,and validity. The general criteria for evaluations or assessments referred to instep 6 are also derived from the scientific method. It was explainedthat the requirement for objectivity and replicability in evaluation issimilar to the requirement for objectivity and replicability in anyscientific observation. The requirement for reliability in evaluationinstruments and devices is based on the same principle as the need foraccuracy of measurement or observation in the physical sciences. Theconcept of replicability of scientific experiments provides a basis forprocedures for checking on both objectivity and reliability. Therequirement of comprehensiveness in educational evaluation derives fromthe scientist's insistence that all the available and relevant databe used. The concept of validity of evaluation instruments andprocedures derives from the principle that scientific inquiry involveschecking assertions against factual evidence and from the importance oflogical relevance in scientific analysis. The most important of these characteristics is validity. In fact,it includes the other three. If valid interpretations can be made fromtest results, the test must necessarily be objective, reliable, andcomprehensive. If it has faults in connection with any of the fourcriteria, it will measure something other than what it was intended tomeasure. Some additional bases set forth for development of instruments andprocedures include kinds of evidence that can be used, standards orcriteria for evaluation, and considerations of philosophy or values. This brief review of the scientific method yielded basiccharacteristics of inquiry and the general steps for developingevaluation instruments and procedures and the principal criteria forjudging their worth. NOTES AND REFERENCES 1. Abraham Kaplan Abraham Kaplan (June 11 1918 - June 19 1993) was an American philosopher. Kaplan's parents were Joseph J. and Chava (Lerner) Kaplan. Abraham's father was a Rabbi. He was raised in Odessa, Ukraine. , The Conduct of Inquiry (San Francisco San Francisco(săn frănsĭs`kō), city (1990 pop. 723,959), coextensive with San Francisco co., W Calif., on the tip of a peninsula between the Pacific Ocean and San Francisco Bay, which are connected by the strait known as the Golden : Chandler Chandler,city (1990 pop. 90,533), Maricopa co., S central Ariz., in the Salt River valley; inc. 1920. It is both a residential community and a center for research and technology. Tourism is also important, and the San Marcos Golf Resort is in Chandler. Publishing Co., 1964), pp.27-28; and Robert M. W. Travers, AnIntroduction to Educational Research, second edition (New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of :Macmillan Co., 1964), pp.1-3. 2. John Dewey, How We Think (Boston: D.C. Heath heath, tract of open landheath,tract of open land characterized by a few scattered trees, abundant moss cover, and numerous low shrubs, principally of the heath family (see heath, in botany). & Co., 1933),pp.106-118. 3. Ernest Nagel Ernest Nagel (November 16, 1901 — September 22, 1985) was among the most important philosophers of science of his time.Nagel was born in Prague (now capital of the Czech Republic; then part of the Austro Hungarian Empire) and immigrated to the United States at the age , The Structure of Science (New York: Harcourt,Brace & World, 1961), pp.4 and 9; and Morris R. Cohen cohenor kohen(Hebrew: “priest”) Jewish priest descended from Zadok (a descendant of Aaron), priest at the First Temple of Jerusalem. The biblical priesthood was hereditary and male. and ErnestNagel, An Introduction to Logic and Scientific Method (New York:Harcourt, Brace & World, 1934), p. 192. 4. T.H. Huxley, "The Method of Scientific Investigation,"in Science: Method and Meaning, eds. Samuel Rapport The former name of device management software from Wyse Technology, San Jose, CA (www.wyse.com) that is designed to centrally control up to 100,000+ devices, including Wyse thin clients (see Winterm), Palm, PocketPC and other mobile devices. and Helen Wright(New York: New York University Press New York University Press (or NYU Press), founded in 1916, is a university press that is part of New York University. External linkNew York University Press , 1963), pp.4-5; and Deobold B. VanDalen, Understanding Educational Research (New York: McGraw-Hill BookCo. 1966), p.52. 5. Cohen and Nagel, pp.191-192; and Kaplan, pp.6-7. 6. Kaplan, p.380. 7. R.H. Remmers, N.L. Gage, and J.F. Rummel, A PracticalIntroduction to Measurement and Evaluation, second edition (New York:Harper & Row, Publishers, 1965), p.359. 8. Max Black, "The Definition of Scientific Method," inScience and Civilization civilization,culture with a relatively high degree of elaboration and technical development. The term civilization also designates that complex of cultural elements that first appeared in human history between 8,000 and 6,000 years ago. , ed. Robert C. Stauffer (Madison, Wis adv. 1. Certainly; really; indeed.v. t. 1. To think; to suppose; to imagine; - used chiefly in the first person sing. present tense, I wis. See the Note under Ywis. .:University of Wisconsin Press The University of Wisconsin Press (or UW Press), founded in 1936, is a university press that is part of the Graduate School of the University of Wisconsin-Madison, United States. It published under its own name and the imprint The Popular Press. , 1949), pp.84-85; and Rapport and Wright,eds., Science: Method and Meaning, p.42. 9. W.I.B. Beveridge, "Chance," in Rapport and Wright,eds., Science: Method and Meaning, pp.131-147. 10. Nagel, p.9. 11. Nagel, pp.8-10. 12. Carter V. Good and Douglas E. Scates, Methods of Research:Educational, Psychological, Sociological (New York:Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1954), p.494. 13. Benjamin S. Bloom bloom1. the general appearance of the surface. In carcass meat it is the glistening, transparent effect and the gentle pink color that gives a good bloom to the carcass. It is the result of proper tissue hydration coupled with the correct proportions of fat, connective tissue and , ed., Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. TheClassification of Educational Goals, Handbook I: Cognitive Domain cognitive domain,n area of study that deals with the processes and measurable results of study, as well as the practical ability to apply intelligence. (NewYork: David McKay Co., 1956). 14. Nagel, p.12; and Van Dalen, p.30. 15. Nagel, p.13; and Marshall Walker, The Nature of ScientificThought (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1963), p.6. 16. Van Dalen, pp.53 and 57; and Huxley, p.4. 17. Walker, p.5. ENOCH I. SAWIN* * Enoch Sawin holds a B.S. in Mathematics (1947), an M.A. inEducation (1948), and a Ph.D. in Education (1951), Univ. of Chicago. Hehas served as Assistant Professor of Education at Syracuse Univ.,1950-1952, Education Specialist at the U.S. Air Force Air Univ., MaxwellAFB AFBabbr.acid-fast bacillusAFBAcid-fast bacillus, also 1. Aflatoxin B 2. Aorto-femoral bypass , AL, 1952-60; and Associate Professor, then Professor of Educationat San Francisco State Univ., 1960-92, retiring in 1992. Dr. Sawin haspublished numerous articles on evaluation, research, and statistics, andwas co-author co��au��thoror co-au��thor ?n.A collaborating or joint author.tr.v. co��au��thored, co��au��thor��ing, co��au��thorsTo be a collaborating or joint author of: "He and a colleague . . . , with J. Fraenkel and N. Wallen, of Visual Statistics,Allyn & Bacon, (1999). This paper was adapted from his book,Evaluation and the Work of the Teacher, Wadsworth Publishing, Belmont,California Belmont is a city in San Mateo County, California, United States. It is a small suburb in the San Francisco Bay Area, located half-way down the San Francisco Peninsula between San Mateo and San Carlos. The population was 25,123 at the 2000 census. , 1969. Reprinted with permission. Steps in Constructing an AchievementSteps in the Scientific Method Test1. A felt need exists. 1. The teacher desires information on pupils.2. The problem is formulated. 2. The basic problem is to assess the extent to which pupils have achieved certain goals. A subproblem is to decide what specific kind of instrument is needed. In this case, it is an achievement test.3. Hypotheses are formulated. 3. The hypotheses are indicated by the expected pupil-learning outcomes-- that is, the instructional goals or objectives.4. Data are collected. 4. With an achievement test, this step requires five substeps: * a. Situations or problems are selected that will give pupils opportunities to express the behaviors indicated in the instructional goals. b. A means is devised for obtaining a record of the pupils' behavior in these situations (for example, an answer sheet). c. Terms or units are decided on that will be used to summarize the records of behavior obtained. (How many points will be given for each answer? How many part scores will be obtained?) d. The test is administered. e. The test is scored.5. Conclusions are drawn. 5. The results, together with other available information, are analyzed in comparison with the instructional goals, and judgments are made on the extent to which the goals have been achieved.6. Conclusions are analyzed. 6. The results obtained are analyzed to determine the extent to which they meet the general criteria for educational measurements. [dagger] Are they objective? Are they reliable? Do they provide an adequate and comprehensive sample of the desired behaviors represented in the instructional goals? Are the interpretations valid?* Ralph W. Tyler, Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction,Syllabus for Education 305 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1950),pp. 74-75.[dagger] Tyler; pp. 76-77.TABLE 1 Relationships between Steps in the Scientific Method and Stepsin Achievement Test Construction