The use of single-subject research to identify evidence-based practice in special education.

The use of single-subject research to identify evidence-based practice in special education. Single-subject research Single Subject Research Designsaka small-n research designs, quasi-experimental research designs.This group of research methods is used extensively in the experimental analysis of behavior in both basic and applied settings with both human and non-human is a rigorous, scientific methodology usedto define basic principles of behavior and establish evidence-basedpractices. A long and productive history exists in which single-subjectresearch has provided useful information for the field of specialeducation (Kennedy, in press; Odom & Strain, 2002; Tawney &Gast, 1984; Wolery & Dunlap, 2001). Since the methodology was firstoperationalized over 40 years ago (Sidman, 1960), single-subjectresearch has proven particularly relevant for defining educationalpractices at the level of the individual learner. Educators buildingindividualized in��di��vid��u��al��ize?tr.v. in��di��vid��u��al��ized, in��di��vid��u��al��iz��ing, in��di��vid��u��al��iz��es1. To give individuality to.2. To consider or treat individually; particularize.3. educational and support plans have benefited from thesystematic form of experimental analysis single-subject research permits(Dunlap & Kern Kern,river, 155 mi (249 km) long, rising in the S Sierra Nevada Mts., E Calif., and flowing south, then southwest to a reservoir in the extreme southern part of the San Joaquin valley. The river has Isabella Dam as its chief facility. , 1997). Of special value has been the ability ofsingle-subject research methods to provide a level of experimental rigor rigor/rig��or/ (rig��er) [L.] chill; rigidity.rigor mor��tis? the stiffening of a dead body accompanying depletion of adenosine triphosphate in the muscle fibers. beyond that found in traditional case studies. Because single-subjectresearch documents experimental control, it is an approach, likerandomized ran��dom��ize?tr.v. ran��dom��ized, ran��dom��iz��ing, ran��dom��iz��esTo make random in arrangement, especially in order to control the variables in an experiment. control-group designs (Shavelson & Towne, 2002), that maybe used to establish evidence-based practices. The systematic and detailed analysis of individuals that isprovided through single-subject research methods has drawn researchersnot only from special education, but also from a growing array ofscholarly disciplines, with over 45 professional journals now reportingsingle-subject research (American Psychological Association, 2002;Anderson, 2001). Further, an array of effective interventions is now inuse that emerged through single-subject research methods. Reinforcementtheory or operant operant/op��er��ant/ (op��er-ant) in psychology, any response that is not elicited by specific external stimuli but that recurs at a given rate in a particular set of circumstances. op��er��antadj. psychology has been the substantive area that hasbenefited most from single-case research methodology. In fact, operantprinciples of behavior have been empirically demonstrated and replicatedwithin the context of single-subject experiments for more than 70 years.However, the close association between operant analysis of humanbehavior and single-subject experimental research is not exclusionary.That is, many procedures based on diverse theoretical approaches tohuman behavior can be evaluated within the confines con��fine?v. con��fined, con��fin��ing, con��finesv.tr.1. To keep within bounds; restrict: Please confine your remarks to the issues at hand.See Synonyms at limit. of single-subjectresearch. Interventions derived from social-learning theory, medicine,social psychology, social work, and communication disorders are but asample of procedures that have been analyzed by single-subject designsand methods (cf., Hersen & Barlow bar��low?n.An inexpensive, one- or two-bladed pocketknife.[After Barlow, the family name of its makers, two brothers in Sheffield, England.] , 1976; Jayarame & Levy, 1979;McReynolds & Kearns, 1983). The specific goals of this article are to (a) present the definingfeatures of single-subject research methodology, (b) clarify therelevance of single-subject research methods for special education, and(c) offer objective criteria for determining when single-subjectresearch results are sufficient for documenting evidence-basedpractices. Excellent introductions to single-subject research exist(Hersen & Barlow, 1976; Kazdin, 1982; Kratochwill & Levin lev��in?n. ArchaicLightning.[Middle English levene, levin; see leuk- in Indo-European roots.] , 1992;Richard, Taylor, Ramasamy & Richards, 1999; Tawney & Gast,1984), and our goal here is not to provide an introduction to thesingle-subject research, but to clarify how single-subject research isused to establish knowledge within special education and define theempirical support needed to document evidence-based practices. SINGLE-SUBJECT RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Single-subject research is experimental rather than correlationalor descriptive, and its purpose is to document causal, or functional,relationships between independent and dependent variables.Single-subject research employs within- and between-subjects comparisonsto control for major threats to internal validity Internal validity is a form of experimental validity [1]. An experiment is said to possess internal validity if it properly demonstrates a causal relation between two variables [2] [3]. and requiressystematic replication to enhance external validity External validity is a form of experimental validity.[1] An experiment is said to possess external validity if the experiment’s results hold across different experimental settings, procedures and participants. (Martella, Nelson,& Marchand-Martella, 1999). Several critical features define thismethodology. Each feature is described in the following sections andorganized later in a table of quality indicators that may be used toassess if an individual study is an acceptable exemplar ex��em��plar?n.1. One that is worthy of imitation; a model. See Synonyms at ideal.2. One that is typical or representative; an example.3. An ideal that serves as a pattern; an archetype.4. ofsingle-subject research. THE INDIVIDUAL PARTICIPANT IS THE UNIT OF ANALYSIS Single-subject designs may involve only one participant, buttypically include multiple participants (e.g., 3 to 8) in a singlestudy. Each participant serves as his or her own control. Performanceprior to intervention is compared to performance during and/or afterintervention. In most cases a research participant is an individual, butit is possible for each participant to be a group whose performancegenerates a single score per measurement period (e.g., the rate ofproblem behavior performed by all children within a classroom during a20 rain period). PARTICIPANT AND SETTING DESCRIPTION Single-subject research requires operational descriptions of theparticipants, setting, and the process by which participants wereselected (Wolery & Ezell, 1993). Another researcher should be ableto use the description of participants and setting to recruit similarparticipants who inhabit in��hab��it?v. in��hab��it��ed, in��hab��it��ing, in��hab��itsv.tr.1. To live or reside in.2. To be present in; fill: Old childhood memories inhabit the attic. similar settings. For example, operationalparticipant descriptions of individuals with a disability would requirethat the specific disability (e.g., autism autism(ô`tĭzəm), developmental disability resulting from a neurological disorder that affects the normal functioning of the brain. It is characterized by the abnormal development of communication skills, social skills, and reasoning. spectrum disorder A spectrum disorder in psychiatry is hard to define precisely but is a mental disorder having something to do with a spectrum of subtypes or closely related disorders. The spectrum model is proposed as a more coherent way of understanding psychiatric symptomatology. , Williamssyndrome Noun 1. Williams syndrome - a rare congenital disorder associated with deletion of genetic material in chromosome 7; characterized by mental deficiency and some growth deficiency and elfin faces but an overly social personality and a remarkable gift for vocabulary ) and the specific instrument and process used to determinetheir disability (e.g., the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised The Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R) is structured interview conducted with the parents of individuals who have been referred for the evaluation of possible autism or autism spectrum disorders. ) beidentified. Global descriptions such as identifying participants ashaving developmental disabilities would be insufficient. DEPENDENT VARIABLE Single-subject research employs one or more dependent variablesthat are defined and measured. In most cases the dependent variable insingle-subject educational research is a form of observable behavior.Appropriate application of single-subject methodology requires dependentvariables to have the following features: * Dependent variables are operationally defined to allow (a) validand consistent assessment of the variable and (b) replication of theassessment process. Dependent variables that allow direct observationand empirical summary (e.g., words read correctly per min; frequency ofhead hits per min; number of s between request and initiation ofcompliance) are desirable. Dependent variables that are definedsubjectively (e.g., frequency of helping behaviors, with no definitionof "helping" provided) or too globally (e.g., frequency of"aggressive" behavior) would not be acceptable. * Dependent variables are measured repeatedly within and acrosscontrolled conditions to allow (a) identification of performancepatterns prior to intervention and (b) comparison of performancepatterns across conditions/ phases. The repeated measurement ofindividual behaviors is critical for comparing the performance of eachparticipant with his or her own prior performance. Within anexperimental phase or condition, sufficient assessment occasions areneeded to establish the overall pattern of performance under thatcondition (e.g., level, trend, variability). Measurement of the behaviorof the same individual across phases or conditions allows comparison ofperformance patterns under different environmental conditions. * Dependent variable recording is assessed for consistencythroughout the experiment by frequent monitoring of interobserveragreement (e.g., the percentage of observational units in whichindependent observers agree) or an equivalent. The measurement ofinterobserver agreement should allow assessment for each variable acrosseach participant in each condition of the study. Reporting interobserveragreement only for the baseline condition or only as one score acrossall measures in a study would not be appropriate. * Dependent variables are selected for their social significance. Adependent variable is chosen not only because it may allow assessment ofa conceptual theory, but also because it is perceived as important forthe individual participant, those who come in contact with theindividual, or for society. INDEPENDENT VARIABLE The independent variable in single-subject research typically isthe practice, intervention, or behavioral mechanism under investigation.Independent variables in single-subject research are operationallydefined to allow both valid interpretation of results and accuratereplication of the procedures. Specific descriptions of procedurestypically include documentation of materials (e.g., 7.5 cm x 12.5 cmcard) as well as actions (e.g., peer tutors implemented the readingcurriculum in a 1:1 context, 30 min per day, 3 days per week). Generaldescriptions of an intervention procedure (e.g., cooperative play) thatare prone to high variability in implementation would not meet theexpectation for operational description of the independent variable. To document experimental control, the independent variable insingle-subject research is actively, rather than passively, manipulated.The researcher must determine when and how the independent variable willchange. For example, if a researcher examines the effects of hard versuseasy school work (independent variable) on rates of problem behavior(dependent variable), the researcher would be expected to operationallydefine, and systematically introduce, hard and easy work rather thansimply observe behavior across the day as work of varying difficulty wasnaturally introduced. In single-subject research the fidelity of independent variableimplementation is documented. Fidelity of implementation is asignificant concern within single-subject research because theindependent variable is applied over time. As a result, documentation ofadequate implementation fidelity is expected either through continuousdirect measurement of the independent variable, or an equivalent(Gresham, Gansel, & Kurtz, 1993). BASELINE/COMPARISON CONDITION Single-subject research designs typically compare the effects of anintervention with performance during a baseline, or comparison,condition. The baseline condition is similar to a treatment as usualcondition in group designs. Single-subject research designs compareperformance during the baseline condition, and then contrast thispattern with performance under an intervention condition. The emphasison comparison across conditions requires measurement during, anddetailed description of, the baseline (or comparison) condition.Description of the baseline condition should be sufficiently precise toallow replication of the condition by other researchers. Measurement of the dependent variable during a baseline shouldoccur until the observed pattern of responding is sufficientlyconsistent to allow prediction of future responding. Documentation of apredictable pattern during baseline typically requires multiple datapoints (five or more, although fewer data points are acceptable inspecific cases) without substantive trend, or with a trend in thedirection opposite that predicted by the intervention. Note that if thedata in a baseline documents a trend in the direction predicted by theintervention, then the ability to document an effect followingintervention is compromised. EXPERIMENTAL CONTROL Single-subject research designs provide experimental control formost threats to internal validity and, thereby, allow confirmation of afunctional relationship between manipulation of the independent variableand change in the dependent variable. In most cases experimental controlis demonstrated when the design documents three demonstrations of theexperimental effect at three different points in time with a singleparticipant (within-subject replication), or across differentparticipants (inter-subject replication). An experimental effect isdemonstrated when predicted change in the dependent variable covarieswith manipulation of the independent variable (e.g., the level, and/orvariability of the dataset in a phase decreases when abehavior-reduction intervention is implemented, or the level and/orvariability of the dataset in a phase increases when thebehavior-reduction intervention is withdrawn). Documentation ofexperimental control is achieved through (a) the introduction andwithdrawal (or reversal) of the independent variable; (b) the staggeredintroduction of the independent variable at different points in time(e.g., multiple baseline); or (c) the iterative it��er��a��tive?adj.1. Characterized by or involving repetition, recurrence, reiteration, or repetitiousness.2. Grammar Frequentative.Noun 1. manipulation of theindependent variable (or levels of the independent variable) acrossobservation periods (e.g., alternating treatments designs). For example, Figure 1 presents a typical A (Baseline)-B(Intervention)-A (Baseline 2)-B (Intervention 2) single-subject researchdesign that establishes three demonstrations of the experimental effectat three points in time through demonstration that behavior change Behavior change refers to any transformation or modification of human behavior. Such changes can occur intentionally, through behavior modification, without intention, or change rapidly in situations of mental illness. covaries with manipulation (introduction and removal) of the independentvariable between Baseline and Intervention phases. Three demonstrationsof an experimental effect are documented at the three arrows in Figure 1by (a) an initial reduction in tantrums between the first A phase(Baseline) and the first B phase (Intervention); (b) a second change inresponse patterns (e.g., return to Baseline patterns) withre-introduction of the Baseline conditions in the second A phase; and(c) a third change in response patterns (e.g., reduction in tantrums)with re-introduction of the intervention in the second B phase. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] A similar logic for documenting experimental control exists formultiple baseline designs with three or more data series. The staggeredintroduction of the intervention within a multiple baseline designallows demonstration of the experimental effect not only within eachdata series, but also across data series at the staggered times ofintervention. Figure 2 presents a design that includes three series,with introduction of the intervention at a different point in time foreach series. The results document experimental control by demonstratinga covariation Noun 1. covariation - (statistics) correlated variationstatistics - a branch of applied mathematics concerned with the collection and interpretation of quantitative data and the use of probability theory to estimate population parameters between change in behavior patterns and introduction ofthe intervention within three different series at three different pointsin time. [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] Excellent sources exist describing the growing array ofsingle-subject designs that allow documentation of experimental control(Hersen & Barlow, 1976; Kazdin, 1982, 1998; Kennedy, in press;Kratochwill & Levin, 1992; McReynolds & Kearns, 1983; Richard,et al., 1999; Tawney & Gast, 1984). Single-subject designs provideexperimental documentation of unequivocal relation ships betweenmanipulation of independent variables and change in dependent variables.Rival hypotheses (e.g., passage of time, measurement effects,uncontrolled variables) must be discarded dis��card?v. dis��card��ed, dis��card��ing, dis��cardsv.tr.1. To throw away; reject.2. a. To throw out (a playing card) from one's hand.b. to document experimentalcontrol. Traditional case study descriptions, or studies with only abaseline followed by an intervention, may provide useful information forthe field, but do not provide adequate experimental control to qualifyas single-subject research. VISUAL ANALYSIS Single-subject research results may be interpreted with the use ofstatistical analyses (Todman & Dugard, 2001); however, thetraditional approach to analysis of single-subject research datainvolves systematic visual comparison of responding within and acrossconditions of a study (Parsonson & Baer, 1978). Documentation ofexperimental control requires assessment of all conditions within thedesign. Each design (e.g., reversal, multiple baseline, changingcriterion, alternating treatments) requires a specific data pattern forthe researcher to claim that change in the dependent variable is, andonly is, a function of manipulating the independent variable. Visual analysis involves interpretation of the level, trend, andvariability of performance occurring during baseline and interventionconditions. Level refers to the mean performance during a condition(i.e., phase) of the study. Trend references the rate of increase ordecrease of the best-fit straight line for the dependent variable withina condition (i.e., slope). Variability refers to the degree to whichperformance fluctuates around a mean or slope during a phase. In visualanalysis, the reader also judges (a) the immediacy im��me��di��a��cy?n. pl. im��me��di��a��cies1. The condition or quality of being immediate.2. Lack of an intervening or mediating agency; directness: the immediacy of live television coverage. of effects followingthe onset and/or withdrawal of the intervention, (b) the proportion ofdata points in adjacent phases that overlap in level, (c) the magnitudeof changes in the dependent variable, and (d) the consistency of datapatterns across multiple presentations of intervention andnonintervention non��in��ter��ven��tion?n.Failure or refusal to intervene, especially in the affairs of another nation.non conditions. The integration of information from thesemultiple assessments and comparisons is used to determine if afunctional relationship exists between the independent and dependentvariables. Documentation of a functional relationship requires compellingdemonstration of an effect (Parsonson & Baer, 1992). Demonstrationof a functional relationship is compromised when (a) there is a longlatency (1) The time between initiating a request in the computer and receiving the answer. Data latency may refer to the time between a query and the results arriving at the screen or the time between initiating a transaction that modifies one or more databases and its completion. between manipulation of the independent variable and change inthe dependent variable, (b) mean changes across conditions are smalland/or similar to changes within conditions, and (c) trends do notconform to Verb 1. conform to - satisfy a condition or restriction; "Does this paper meet the requirements for the degree?"fit, meetcoordinate - be co-ordinated; "These activities coordinate well" those predicted following introduction or manipulation of theindependent variable. A growing set of models also exists for conducting meta-analysis ofsingle-subject research (Busk busk?intr.v. busked, busk��ing, busksTo play music or perform entertainment in a public place, usually while soliciting money. & Serlin, 1992; Didden, Duker, &Korzilius, 1997; Faith, Allison, & Gorman, 1996; Hershberger,Wallace, Green, & Marquis, 1999; Marquis et al., 2000). Thisapproach to analysis is of special value in documentation of comparativetrends in a field. EXTERNAL VALIDITY Single-subject designs are used to (a) test conceptual theory and(b) identify and validate effective clinical interventions. A centralconcern is the ex tent to which an effect documented by one study hasrelevance for participants, locations, materials, and behaviors beyondthose defined in the study. External validity of results fromsingle-subject research is enhanced through replication of the effectsacross different participants, different conditions, and/or differentmeasures of the dependent variable. Although a study may involve only one participant, features ofexternal validity of a single study are improved if the study includesmultiple participants, settings, materials, and/or behaviors. It istypical for single-subject studies to demonstrate effects with at leastthree different participants. It also is expected that the generality gen��er��al��i��ty?n. pl. gen��er��al��i��ties1. The state or quality of being general.2. An observation or principle having general application; a generalization.3. and/or "boundaries" of an intervention will be established notby a single study, but through systematic replication of effects acrossmultiple studies conducted in multiple locations and across multipleresearchers (Birnbrauer, 1981). External validity in single-subjectresearch also is enhanced through operational description of (a) theparticipants, (b) the context in which the study is conducted, and (c)the factors influencing a participant's behavior prior tointervention (e.g., assessment and baseline response patterns). The external validity for a program of single-subject studies isnarrowed when selection and attrition bias Attrition bias or exclusion bias in epidemiology is a kind of selection bias caused by attrition of subjects.This can be due to: Systematic difference of participants in the study from the population from which they were selected due to selective loss of (e.g., the selection of onlycertain participants, or the publication of only successful examples)limit the range of examples available for analysis (Durand & Rost,in press). Having and reporting specific selection criteria, however,assist in defining for whom, and under what conditions a givenindependent variable is likely to result in defined changes in thedependent measures. Attrition AttritionThe reduction in staff and employees in a company through normal means, such as retirement and resignation. This is natural in any business and industry.Notes: is a potent threat to both the internaland external validity of single-subject studies, and any participant whoexperienced both conditions (i.e., baseline and intervention) of a studyshould be included in reports of that study. SOCIAL VALIDITY Within education, single-subject research has been used not only toidentify basic principles of behavior (e.g., theory), but also todocument interventions (independent variables) that are functionallyrelated to change in socially important autcomes (dependent variables;Wolf, 1978). The emphasis on intervention has resulted in substantialconcern about the social validity, or practicality, of researchprocedures and findings. The racial validity of single-subject researchgoals, procedures and findings is enhanced by: * Emphasis on the selection of dependent variables that have highsocial importance. * Demonstration that the independent variables can be applied withfidelity by typical intervention agents (e.g., teachers, parents) intypical intervention contexts across meaningful periods of time. * Demonstration that typical intervention agents (a) report theprocedures to be acceptable, (b) report the procedures to be feasiblewithin available resources, (c) report the procedure to be effective,and (d) choose to continue use of the intervention procedures afterformal support/expectation of use is removed. For example, an effectiveprocedure designed for use by young parents where the procedure fitswithin the daily family routines would have good social validity,whereas an intervention that disrupted family routines and compromisedthe ability of a family to function normatively would not have goodsocial validity. * Demonstration that the intervention produced an effect that metthe defined, clinical need. Within special education, single-subject research has been used toexamine strategies for building academic achievement (Greenwood Greenwood.1 City (1990 pop. 26,265), Johnson co., central Ind.; settled 1822, inc. as a city 1960. A residential suburb of Indianapolis, Greenwood is in a retail shopping area. Manufactures include motor vehicle parts and metal products. , Tapia,Abbott & Walton, 2003; Miller, Gunter, Venn, Hummel hummelentire, naturally polled deer. , & Wiley,2003; Rohena, Jitendra & Browder, 2002); improving social behavior In biology, psychology and sociology social behavior is behavior directed towards, or taking place between, members of the same species. Behavior such as predation which involves members of different species is not social. and reducing problem behavior (Carr et al., 1999; Koegel & Koegel,1986, 1990); and enhancing the skills of teachers (Moore et al., 2002)or families who implement interventions (Cooper, Wacker Wacker may refer to: EMS Wacker http://i9.tinypic.com/4veeqvo.jpg http://i2.tinypic.com/5xrb2g0.jpg Wacker Drive Wacker process Sports VfB Admira Wacker M?dling Wacker Berlin Wacker Burghausen , Sasso, Reimers,& Donn, 1990; Hall et al., 1972). Single-subject research also can be used to emphasize importantdistinctions between, and integration of, efficacy research(documentation that an experimental effect can be obtained undercarefully controlled conditions) and effectiveness research(documentation that an experimental effect can be obtained under typicalconditions) that may affect large-scale implementation of a procedure(Flay flayto strip off the skin. , 1986). RESEARCH QUESTIONS APPROPRIATE FOR SINGLE-SUBJECT RESEARCH METHODS The selection of any research methodology should be guided, inpart, by the research question(s) under consideration. No researchapproach is appropriate for all research questions, and it is importantto clarify the types of research questions that any research method isorganized to address. Single-subject research designs are organized toprovide fine-grained, time-series analysis of change in a dependentvariable(s) across systematic introduction or manipulations of anindependent variable. They are particularly appropriate when one wishesto understand the performance of a specific individual under a given setof conditions. Research questions appropriately addressed with single-subjectmethods (a) examine causal, or functional, relations by examining theeffects that introducing or manipulating an independent variable (e.g.,an intervention) has on change in one or more dependent variables; (b)focus on the effects that altering a component of a multicomponentindependent variable (e.g., an intervention package) has on one or moredependent variables; or (c) focus on the relative effects of two or moreindependent variable manipulations (e.g., alternative interventions) onone or more dependent variables. Examples of research questionsappropriately addressed by single-subject methods include * Does functional communication training reduce problem behavior? * Do incidental Contingent upon or pertaining to something that is more important; that which is necessary, appertaining to, or depending upon another known as the principal.Under Workers' Compensation statutes, a risk is deemed incidental to employment when it is related to whatever a teaching procedures increase social initiations byyoung children with autism? * Is time delay prompting or least-to-most prompt hierarchy moreeffective in promoting self-help skills of young children with severedisabilities? * Does pacing of reading instruction increase the rate ofacquisition of reading skills by third graders? * Does the use of a new drug for children with AD/HD result in anincrease in sustained attention? QUALITY INDICATORS FOR SINGLE-SUBJECT RESEARCH By its very nature, research is a process of approximations. Thefeatures listed previously define the core elements of single-subjectresearch methodology, but we recognize that these features will be metwith differing levels of precision. We also recognize that there areconditions in which exceptions are appropriate. It is important,therefore, to offer guidance for assessing the degree to whichsingle-subject research methods have been applied adequately within astudy, and an objective standard for determining if a particular studymeets the minimally acceptable levels that permit interpretation. Impressive efforts exist for quantifying the methodological rigorof specific single-subject studies (Busk & Serlin, 1992;Kratochwill, & Stoiber, 2002). In combination with the previousdescriptions, we offer the information in Table 1 as content fordetermining if a study meets the "acceptable" methodologicalrigor needed to be a credible example of single-subject research. IMPORTANCE OF SINGLE SUBJECT RESEARCH METHODS FOR RESEARCH INSPECIAL EDUCATION * Single-subject research methods offer a number of features thatmake them particularly appropriate for use in special educationresearch. Special education is a field that emphasizes (a) theindividual student as the unit of concern, (b) active intervention, and(c) practical procedures that can be used in typical school, home, andcommunity contexts. Special education is a problem-solving discipline,in which ongoing research in applied settings is needed. Single-subjectresearch matches well with the needs of special education in thefollowing ways. * Single-subject research focuses on the individual. Causal, orfunctional, relationships can be identified without requiring theassumptions needed for parametric analysis (e.g., normal distribution).Research questions in special education often focus on low-incidence orheterogeneous populations. Information about mean performance of thesegroups may be of less value for application to individuals.Single-subject methods allow targeted analysis at the unit of the"individual," the same unit at which the intervention will bedelivered. * Single-subject research allows detailed analysis of"nonresponders" as well as "responders." Controlgroup designs produce conclusions about the generality of treatmenteffects as they relate to group means, not as they relate to specificindividuals. Even in the most successful group designs, there areindividuals whose behavior remains unaffected, or is made worse, by thetreatment (e.g., "nonresponders"). Single-subject designsprovide an empirically rigorous method for analyzing the characteristicsof these nonresponders, thereby advancing knowledge about the possibleexistence of subgroups and subject-by-treatment interactions. Analysisof nonresponders also allows identification of intervention adaptationsneeded to produce intended outcomes with a wider range of participants. * Single-subject research provides a practical methodology fortesting educational and behavioral interventions. Single-subject methodsallow unequivocal analysis of the relationship between individualizedinterventions and change in valued outcomes. Through replication, themethodology also allows testing of the breadth, or external validity, offindings. * Single-subject research provides a practical research methodologyfor assessing experimental effects under typical educational conditions.Single-subject designs evaluate interventions (independent variables)under conditions similar to those recommended for special educators,such as repeated applications of a procedure over time. This allowsassessment of the process of change as well as the product of change,and facilitates analysis of maintenance as well as initial effects. * Single-subject research designs allow testing of conceptualtheory. Single-subject designs can be used to test the validity oftheories of behavior that predict conditions under which behavior change(e.g., learning) should and should not Occur. * Single-subject research methods are a cost-effective approach toidentifying educational and behavioral interventions that areappropriate for large-scale analysis. Single-subject research methods,when applied across multiple studies, can be used to guide large-scalepolicy directives. Single-subject research also can be used costeffectively to produce a body of reliable, persuasive evidence thatjustifies investment in large, often expensive, randomized control groupdesigns. The control group designs, in turn, can be used to furtherdemonstrate external validity of findings established via single-subjectmethodology. THE IDENTIFICATION OF EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICES USING SINGLE-SUBJECTRESEARCH Current legislation and policy within education emphasizecommitment to, and dissemination disseminationMedtalk The spread of a pernicious process–eg, CA, acute infection Oncology Metastasis, see there of, evidence-based (orresearch-validated) practices (Shavelson & Towne, 2002). Appropriateconcern exists that investment in practices that lack adequate empiricalsupport may drain limited educational resources and, in some cases, mayresult in the use of practices that are not in the best interest ofchildren (Beutler, 1998; Nelson, Roberts, Mathur, & Rutherford Rutherford(rŭth`ərfərd), borough (1990 pop. 17,790), Bergen co., NE N.J., a residential suburb of the New York City–N New Jersey metropolitan area; inc. 1881. Several pre-Revolutionary houses remain there. ,1999; Whitehurst, 2003). To support the investment in evidence-basedpractices, it is appropriate for any research method to define objectivecriteria that local, state or federal decision makers may use todetermine if a practice is evidence based (Chambless & Hollon, 1998;Chambless & Ollendick, 2001; Odom & Strain, 2002; Shernoff,Kratochwill, & Stoiber, 2002). This is a logical, but not easy, task(Christenson, Carlson, & Valdez, 2002). We provide here a contextfor using single-subject research to document evidence-based practicesin special education that draws directly from recommendations by theTask Force on Evidence-Based Interventions in School Psychology(Kratochwill & Stoiber, 2002), and the Committee on Science andPractice, Division 12, American Psychological Association (Weisz &Hawley, 2002). A practice refers to a curriculum, behavioral intervention behavioral interventionBehavior modification, behavior 'mod', behavioral therapy, behaviorism Psychiatry The use of operant conditioning models, ie positive and negative reinforcement, to modify undesired behaviors–eg, anxiety. , systemschange, or educational approach designed for use by families, educators,or students with the express expectation that implementation will resultin measurable educational, social, behavioral, or physical benefit. Apractice may be a precise intervention (e.g., functional communicationtraining; Carr & Durand, 1985), a procedure for documenting acontrolling mechanism (e.g., the use of high-probability requests tocreate behavioral momentum Behavioral momentum is a theory in Quantitative Analysis of Behavior and is a comparative metaphor based on physical momentum. It describes the general relation between resistance to change (persistence of behavior) and the rate of reinforcement obtained in a given situation. ; Mace et al., 1988), or a larger program withmultiple components (e.g., direct instruction; Gettinger, 1993). Within single-subject research methods, as with other researchmethods, the field is just beginning the process of determining theprofessional standards that allow demonstration of an evidence-basedpractice (Kratochwill & Stoiber, 2002). It is prudent to proposeinitial standards that are conservative and draw from existingapplication in the field (e.g., build from examples of practices such asfunctional communication training that are generally accepted asevidence based). We propose five standards that may be applied to assessif single-subject research results document a practice as evidencebased. The standards were drawn from the conceptual logic forsingle-subject methods (Kratochwill & Stoiber), and from standardsproposed for identifying evidence-based practices using group designs(Shavelson & Towne, 2002). Single-subject research documents a practice as evidence based when(a) the practice is operationally defined; (b) the context in which thepractice is to be used is defined; (c) the practice is implemented withfidelity; (d) results from single-subject research document the practiceto be functionally related to change in dependent measures; and (e) theexperimental effects are replicated across a sufficient number ofstudies, researchers, and participants to allow confidence in thefindings. Each of these standards is elaborated in the following list. * The practice is operationally defined. A practice must bedescribed with sufficient precision so that individuals other than thedevelopers can replicate rep��li��catev.1. To duplicate, copy, reproduce, or repeat.2. To reproduce or make an exact copy or copies of genetic material, a cell, or an organism.n.A repetition of an experiment or a procedure. it with fidelity. * The context and outcomes associated with a practice are clearlydefined. Practices seldom are expected to produce all possible benefitsfor all individuals under all conditions. For a practice to beconsidered evidence based it must be defined in a context. This meansoperational description of (a) the specific conditions where thepractice should be used, (b) the individuals qualified to apply thepractice, (c) the population(s) of individuals (and their functionalcharacteristics) for whom the practice is expected to be effective, and(d) the specific outcomes (dependent variables) affected by thepractice. Practices that are effective in typical performance settingssuch as the home, school, community, and workplace are of special value. * The practice is implemented with documented fidelity.Single-subject research studies should provide adequate documentationthat the practice was implemented with fidelity. * The practice is functionally related to change in valuedoutcomes. Single-subject research studies should document a causal, orfunctional, relationship between use of the practice and change in asocially important dependent variable by controlling for the effects ofextraneous ex��tra��ne��ous?adj.1. Not constituting a vital element or part.2. Inessential or unrelated to the topic or matter at hand; irrelevant. See Synonyms at irrelevant.3. variables. * Experimental control is demonstrated across a sufficient range ofstudies, researchers, and participants to allow confidence in theeffect. Documentation of an evidence-based practice typically requiresmultiple single-subject studies. We propose the following standard: Apractice may be considered evidence based when (a) a minimum of fivesingle-subject studies that meet minimally acceptable methodologicalcriteria and document experimental control have been published inpeer-reviewed journals, (b) the studies are conducted by at least threedifferent researchers across at least three different geographicallocations, and (c) the five or more studies include a total of at least20 participants. An example of applying these criteria is provided by the literatureassessing functional communication training (FCT FCT Faculdade de Ci��ncias e Tecnologia (Portuguese University)FCT Fundamentals of Computation TheoryFCT Funda??o para a Ci��ncia e a Tecnologia (Portuguese Science and Technology Foundation)). As a practice, FCTinvolves (a) using functional assessment procedures to define theconsequences that function as reinforcers for undesirable behavior, (b)teaching a socially acceptable, and equally efficient, alternativebehavior that produces the same consequence as the undesirable behavior,and (c) minimizing reinforcement of the undesirable behavior.Documentation of this practice as evidence-based is provided by thefollowing citations, which demonstrate experimental effects in eightpeer-reviewed articles across five major research groups and 42participants (Bird, Dores, Moniz, & Robinson, 1989; Brown et al.,2000; Carr & Durand, 1985; Durand & Carr, 1987, 1991; Hagopian,Fisher, Sullivan, Acquisto, & LeBlanc, 1998; Mildon, Moore, &Dixon, 2004; Wacker et al., 1990). CONCLUSION We offer a concise description of the features that definesingle-subject research, the indicators that can be used to judgequality of single-subject research, and the standards for determining ifan intervention, or practice, is validated as evidence based viasingle-subject methods. Single-subject research offers a powerful anduseful methodology for improving the practices that benefit individualswith disabilities and their families. Any systematic policy forpromoting the development and/or dissemination of evidence-basedpractices in education should include single-subject research as anencouraged methodology.TABLE 1Quality Indicators Within Single-Subject ResearchDescription of Participants and Settings* Participants are described with sufficient detail to allowothers to select individuals with similar characteristics(e.g., age, gender, disability, diagnosis).* The process for selecting participants is described with replicableprecision.* Critical features of the physical setting are described withsufficient precision to allow replication.Dependent Variable* Dependent variables are described with operational precision.* Each dependent variable is measured with a procedure that generates aquantifiable index.* Measurement of the dependent variable is valid and described withreplicable precision.* Dependent variables are measured repeatedly over time.* Data are collected on the reliability or interobserver agreementassociated with each dependent variable, andIOA levels meet minimal standards (e.g., IOA = 80%; Kappa = 60%).Independent Variable* Independent variable is described with replicable precision.* Independent variable is systematically manipulated and under thecontrol of the experimenter.* Overt measurement of the fidelity of implementation for theindependent variable is highly desirable.Baseline* The majority of single-subject research studies will include abaseline phase that provides repeated measurement of a dependentvariable and establishes a pattern of responding that can be used topredict the pattern of future performance, if introduction ormanipulation of the independent variable did not occur.* Baseline conditions are described with replicable precision.Experimental Control/Internal Validity* The design provides at least three demonstrations of experimentaleffect at three different points in time.* The design controls for common threats to internal validity (e.g.,permits elimination of rival hypotheses).* The results document a pattern that demonstrates experimentalcontrol.External Validity* Experimental effects are replicated across participants, settings, ormaterials to establish external validity.Social Validity* The dependent variable is socially important.* The magnitude of change in the dependent variable resulting from theintervention is socially important.* Implementation of the independent variable is practical and costeffective.* Social validity is enhanced by implementation of the independentvariable over extended time periods, by typical intervention agents,in typical physical and social contexts. 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K. (1993). Subject descriptions and single-subjectresearch. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 26, 642-647. Wolf, M. M.(1978). Social validity: The case for subjective measurement or howapplied behavior analysis is finding its heart. Journal of AppliedBehavior Analysis, 11, 203-214. ABOUT THE AUTHORS ROBERT H. HORNER (CEC (Central Electronic Complex) The set of hardware that defines a mainframe, which includes the CPU(s), memory, channels, controllers and power supplies included in the box. Some CECs, such as IBM's Multiprise 2000 and 3000, include data storage devices as well. OR Federation), Professor, Educational andCommunity Supports, University of Oregon The University of Oregon is a public university located in Eugene, Oregon. The university was founded in 1876, graduating its first class two years later. The University of Oregon is one of 60 members of the Association of American Universities. , Eugene. EDWARD G. CARR (CEC#71), Professor, Department of Psychology, State University of New York (body) State University of New York - (SUNY) The public university system of New York State, USA, with campuses throughout the state. at Stony ston��yalso ston��ey ?adj. ston��i��er, ston��i��est1. Covered with or full of stones: a stony beach.2. Resembling stone, as in hardness.3. a. Brook. JAMES HALLE (CEC #51), Professor, Department of SpecialEducation, University of Illinois University of Illinois may refer to: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (flagship campus) University of Illinois at Chicago University of Illinois at Springfield University of Illinois system It can also refer to: , Champaign. GAIL GAIL Gas Authority of India Limited (Indian government)GAIL Glide Angle Indicator Light MCGEE (CEC #685),Professor, Emory Autism Resource Center, Emory University Emory University(ĕm`ərē), near Atlanta, Ga.; coeducational; United Methodist; chartered as Emory College 1836, opened 1837 at Oxford. It became Emory Univ. in 1915 and in 1919 moved to Atlanta. , School ofMedicine, Atlanta, Georgia. SAMUEL ODOM (CEC #407), Professor, School ofEducation, Indiana University Indiana University,main campus at Bloomington; state supported; coeducational; chartered 1820 as a seminary, opened 1824. It became a college in 1828 and a university in 1838. The medical center (run jointly with Purdue Univ. , Bloomington. MARK WOLERY (CEC #98),Professor, Department of Special Education, Vanderbilt University Vanderbilt University,at Nashville, Tenn.; coeducational; chartered 1872 as Central Univ. of Methodist Episcopal Church, founded and renamed 1873, opened 1875 through a gift from Cornelius Vanderbilt. Until 1914 it operated under the auspices of the Methodist Church. ,Nashville, Tennessee “Nashville” redirects here. For other uses, see Nashville (disambiguation).Nashville is the capital and the second most populous city of the U.S. state of Tennessee, after Memphis. . Address all correspondence to Robert H. Homer, Educational andCommunity Supports, 1235 University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403-1235;(541) 346-2462 (e-mail: robh@uoregon.edu) Manuscript received December 2003; manuscript accepted April 2004.