An engraved bone fragment from c. 70,000-year-old Middle Stone Age levels at Blombos Cave, South Africa: implications for the origin of symbolism and language.

An engraved bone fragment from c. 70,000-year-old Middle Stone Age levels at Blombos Cave, South Africa: implications for the origin of symbolism and language. Depictional or abstract representations, and personal ornaments,are generally considered archaeological expressions of modern cognitiveabilities and evidence for the acquisition of articulate oral language(e.g. Deacon 1997; Mellars 1998; Aiello 1998). These behaviours arecommonly recorded at European sites dated after c. 35,000 years ago. Itis a matter of debate whether convincing archaeological evidence existsfor an earlier origin of these traits. Some models link thesebehavioural innovations to a rapid biological change in Africa at c.50,000 (Klein 2000); others suggest a much earlier and possibly moregradual evolution towards such `modern' behaviour (e.g. Watts 1999;Barham 1998; McBrearty & Brooks 2000; Henshilwood et al. in press).Alternatively, symbolism might have developed independently ofbiological changes as a consequence of demographic, ecological, andcultural changes, as is argued to be the case for Neanderthals (seed'Errico et al. 1998). In this paper we re-examine a fragment of mammal bone recovered in1992 from the Blombos Cave Middle Stone Age phase BBC BBCin full British Broadcasting Corp.Publicly financed broadcasting system in Britain. A private company at its founding in 1922, it was replaced by a public corporation under royal charter in 1927. M1, Layer SAN(equivalent to Layer CD -- see Henshilwood et al. in press) (FIGURE 1).One surface has a series of sub-parallel incisions that were made with astone tool. [ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] In a previous publication opinion was reserved as to whether theseincisions represent butchery marks or intentional engraving (Henshilwood& Sealy 1997). Here we re-examine the object in light of recentdiscoveries at Blombos Cave of two pieces of ochre deliberately engravedwith abstract patterns interpreted as symbolic, meaningfulrepresentations (Henshilwood et al. in press). We propose that theBlombos bone is deliberately engraved and that abstract representationsoccur on material other than ochre in the Middle Stone Age. Thisevidence points to the existence of symbolic culture in southern Africaby at least 70,000 years ago. Archaeological context Blombos Cave (BBC) is situated near Still Bay in the southern Cape.Located in a coastal cliff 34.5 m above sea level, the cave is about 100m from the Indian Ocean. The Middle Stone Age (MSA) levels at the cavewere first excavated in 1992, and subsequently annually between 1997 and2000. The uppermost Later Stone Age (LSA) levels are [sup.14]C dated atabout 300 years BP, the lowermost at 2000 BP, and are separated from theunderlying MSA by 5-40 cm of sterile aeolian Ae��o��li��an?adj.1. Of or relating to Aeolis or its people or culture.2. Greek Mythology Of or relating to Aeolus.3. aeolian Variant of eolian.n.1. sand. During fiveexcavation seasons 13 cu. m of deposit was excavated. A lime-rich matrixderived from the calcarenite cave rock ensures excellent preservationand a wide range of marine and terrestrial animal bone was recoveredincluding fish, shellfish (Henshilwood et al. in press) and human teeth(Grine et al. 2000). Recorded features include discrete in situ circularhearths and stone working activity areas. Shaped bone tools wererecovered from MSA levels (Henshilwood & Sealy 1997; Henshilwood etal. in press; submitted). In 2000, excavated MSA layers were subdividedinto three phases (FIGURE 1): an upper phase, BBC M1 (Layers CA-CE),typified by Still Bay type biracial foliate foliate/fo��li��ate/ (fo��le-it)1. having, pertaining to, or resembling leaves.2. consisting of thin, leaflike layers. points with a few bone tools(Henshilwood et al. in press); a middle BBC M2 phase (Layers CF &CGA) containing more than 20 worked bone tools with few bifacials; and alower shellfish rich phase, BBC M3 (Layers CGB-CJ), that containstypical MSA blades and flakes with a low incidence of retouch. The MSA levels are being dated using luminescence luminescence,general term applied to all forms of cool light, i.e., light emitted by sources other than a hot, incandescent body, such as a black body radiator. techniques:single-grain laser luminescence (SGLL), single aliquot aliquot(al-ee-kwoh) adj. a definite fractional share, usually applied when dividing and distributing a dead person's estate or trust assets. (See: share) opticallystimulated luminescence (OSL OSL Open Source LabOSL Office of Student LifeOSL Open Source LicenseOSL Oregon State LibraryOSL Order of St Luke the PhysicianOSL Optical Stimulated LuminescenceOSL Oud Strijders Legioen (Dutch)OSL Order of Saint Luke and IRSL IRSL IR Stimulated Luminescence ), multiple aliquot OSL onsediments and also TL of burnt lithics, and electron spin resonance electron spin resonance (ESR)or electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR)Technique of spectroscopic analysis (see spectroscopy) used to identify paramagnetic substances (see (ESR ESR - Eric S. Raymond ) on teeth. This work is on-going in Aberystwyth (UK),Gif-sur-Yvette (France) and Hamilton (Canada). The location of the`Still Bay' phase (for a full definition of the `Still Bay'see Henshilwood et al. in press) within the local MSA cultural sequenceprovides a handle on its estimated age that is additional to absolutedating methods. Excavations at a number of MSA cave sites in the westernand southern Cape, South Africa, show that bifacially worked lithics,typical of the Still Bay, occur below and occasionally within the basallevels of Howiesons Poort assemblages. There is no evidence of bifacialpoints in the MSA post-dating the Howiesons Poort. The bulk of availableevidence indicates that the Still Bay sub-stage lies immediately belowthe Howiesons Poort dated at about 65-70,000 years ago (Miller et al.1999; Vogel in press) and therefore probably dates to a minimum of70,000. Objective and methodology The objective of the new study was to determine whether incisionson the BBC bone fragment are deliberate engraving or the result offunctional activities such as flesh removal. The fragment was comparedto mammal bones in the South African Museum collection to determine itsanatomical and taxonomic origin. The incisions on the bone fragment werecompared to cutmarks on bone from modern butchery carried out in 1993(Nilssen 2000). The latter study was conducted in the Cape, SouthAfrica, and involved the disarticulation disarticulation/dis��ar��tic��u��la��tion/ (dis?ahr-tik?u-la��shun) exarticulation; amputation or separation at a joint. dis��ar��tic��u��la��tionn. , processing and filleting, byskilled game butchers with steel and stone knives, of 16 bovids of sizeclass IIV IIV Integrated Intensity Value including grysbok (Raphicerus melanotis), springbok(Antidorcas marsupialis), blesbok blesbok:see damalisk. (Damaliscus dorcas), black wildebeest(Connochaetes gnou) and eland eland(ē`lənd), large, spiral-horned African antelope, genus Taurotragus, found in brush country or open forest at the edge of grasslands. Elands live in small herds and are primarily browsers rather than grazers. (Taurotragus oryx). Cut-mark location,morphology and orientation were recorded. Cut marks and engravings onbone from African and European archaeological assemblages were examined.Deliberate engravings on ochre pieces from the MSA levels (Henshilwoodet al. in press) were also compared to those on the bone fragment. Theincised area on the bone fragment and experimental engravings and cutmarks were replicated and observed with a SEM. Transparent resinreplicas were also observed in transmitted light with a low powermicroscope and digitized with a framegrabber. Results A re-examination of the BBC bone suggests it is probably amandibular mandibular(mandib´ylr),adj pertaining to the lower jaw. fragment from a size class III or IV mammal, rather than ascapula scapula/scap��u��la/ (skap��u-lah) pl. scap��ulae ? [L.] shoulder blade; the flat, triangular bone in the back of the shoulder. scap��ular scap��u��lan. pl. fragment (cf. Henshilwood & Sealy 1997). This is indicatedby a remnant tooth socket and by the orientation and structure of thebone fibres. Old fractures occur on three sides of the bone with arecent break along the upper rectilinear rec��ti��lin��e��ar?adj.Moving in, consisting of, bounded by, or characterized by a straight line or lines: following a rectilinear path; rectilinear patterns in wallpaper. edge. Eleven incisions runparallel to the long axis of the mandible mandible/man��di��ble/ (man��di-b'l) the horseshoe-shaped bone forming the lower jaw, articulating with the skull at the temporomandibular joint.mandib��ular man��di��blen. (FIGURE 2). A superficial anddiscontinuous line obliquely intersects six; seven have a sinuous sinuous/sin��u��ous/ (sin��u-us) bending in and out; winding. sinuousbending in and out; winding. outline. [ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] Natural or taphonomic processes are known to mimic anthropogenic an��thro��po��gen��ic?adj.1. Of or relating to anthropogenesis.2. Caused by humans: anthropogenic degradation of the environment. markings (e.g. d'Errico & Villa 1997; Beherensmeyer et al.1986) but this is not the case here. The grooves (FIGURES 3, 4a) showclean, clear edges with internal striations indicating they are notvascular grooves or impressions left by scoring or root etching.Striations due to trampling are generally narrower, more superficial andlack the sinuous outline of those on this bone fragment. Absence ofmicro-damage on the groove edges and the clean appearance of theinternal striations suggest the bone was fresh when the incisions weremade. Some chemical damage, possibly root etching, has produced circularmicro-pits 100-200 [micro]m in diameter (FIGURE 3bc). Micro-concretions(FIGURE 3d) on the surface and in the grooves of the bone demonstratethe antiquity of the grooves. [ILLUSTRATIONS OMITTED] Although the above observations demonstrate these marks areanthropogenic in origin they do not indicate whether they areintentional or functional. The morphology of butchery cut marks is welldescribed (e.g. see Fisher 1995 for an overview). Cut marks aretypically V-shaped, narrow and shallow when made by the cutting edge ofa sharp blade. A blunt blade or the point of a tool may produce aU-shaped cut. As the cutting action is usually made with rapid strokesthe marks are generally straight and, rarely, slightly sinuous. With oneexception (see oblique thin line -- FIGURE 3b) the incisions on the bonefragment are comparable with those produced by a point (d'Errico1995). The morphology, location, frequency and orientation of butchery cutmarks observed on 14 modern mandibles are unlike those on the BBC piece(FIGURE 4). Only one longitudinal cut, located near the ventral border,was observed on the modern mandibles. Cut marks were fairly straight,V-shaped and made with the cutting edge of a blade. In no case wascontact with the point of the tool observed. Cuts elsewhere on thebuccal buc��caladj.1. Of, relating to, adjacent to, or in the direction of the cheek.2. Of or relating to the mouth cavity.buccal or lingual surface are mostly short, diagonal, or transverse tothe long axis of the bone and occur singly, or as double sub-parallelincisions unlike incisions on the BBC piece. [ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] Cut marks from the butchery study are clearly different from theincisions on the BBC piece. The latter are U-shaped, unusually wide anddeep, sinuous, multiple, parallel, and in an unusual anatomicallocation. As shown below, five incisions on the piece were produced byrepeated strokes. This is further evidence for a non-functionalinterpretation. Single cut marks produced by multiple strokes are notuncommon but the repetition of this action on several adjacent incisionswas never observed on modern butchered bones. The repeated use of thismultiple stroke technique suggests a deliberate intention to producedeep visible incisions. Microscopic analysis of the incisions provides further informationabout the technique used and sequence of the engravings. Incisions havewide walls with large fiat bottoms divided by a thin deep groove (FIGURE3). Comparison with experimental incisions on bone (FIGURE 5; see alsod'Errico 1995) and Upper Palaeolithic engraved lines on a decoratedbird bone from the Cabone shelter, France (FIGURE 6; d'Errico &David 1993) indicates that all longitudinal incisions on the BBC bonewere produced by one lithic lith��ic?1?adj.Consisting of or relating to stone or rock.Adj. 1. lithic - of or containing lithium2. lithic - relating to or composed of stone; "lithic sandstone" point in a single session. The order of theincisions can be determined by analysing line junctures and crossings.The lower line that completely crosses the surface plus threesuperficial lines below it (FIGURE 7a) were produced before the set ofparallel lines engraved between this line and the upper margin (FIGURE7b-c). The latter were juxtaposed toward the top margin, as indicated bytwo different junctures (FIGURE 7c-1 & 2). Last to be incised wasthe shallow discontinuous line which obliquely crosses the surface. Fiveincisions that completely cross the surface of the fragment, were madeby repeated strokes for each. Evidence for this is the greater width anddepth of these incisions compared to the other grooves. Also, the secondincision from the upper edge seems to cut, near the left margin, asuperficial joining line (FIGURE 7c-3) that is posterior to the firsttracing of the main incision. This indicates the latter was produced byat least three different strokes and that the joining line probablyresults from the accidental exit of the point during the incisionprocess; alternatively an error was made when starting the incisionoutside the main groove. [ILLUSTRATIONS OMITTED] Discussion and conclusion Comparison of modern and archaeological engravings and butchery cutmarks with those on the BBC bone indicates the latter was intentionallyengraved. This is suggested by the number, orientation, sinuous outlineand anatomical location of the engravings, by the use of a point ratherthan a cutting edge, by the technique used (multiple stroke) andsequence of the engravings. All the lines are interrupted by breakage atleast on one end, and more than half at both ends, indicating that thelines were originally longer. Experimental engraving using a flint pointshows that in order to produce a number of parallelmultiple-stroke-lines a few millimetres apart, such as those on the BBCfragment, one needs to hold the bone fragment firmly in one hand orpress it on a surface during the engraving process. This implies thatthe chosen bone must be big enough to be handled with precision. Thefingers holding the bone should leave enough free space to move the toolacross a surface and also allow visual control to ensure the engravedlines are parallel to one another. It is therefore very probable thatthe lines on the BBC bone were originally engraved on a largermandibular fragment, or a whole mandible. Clearly, the lines on thisremaining fragment offer only a partial view of the original engravedpattern, making it difficult to establish the level of gestural andideational i��de��ate?v. i��de��at��ed, i��de��at��ing, i��de��atesv.tr.To form an idea of; imagine or conceive: "Such characters represent a grotesquely blown-up aspect of an ideal man . . . complexity intended or achieved by the engraver. However, atan intra-site level, the behavioural and cognitive context from whichthis object comes suggests it is not improbable that the maker hadsymbolic intentions when the engraving was done. This inference issupported by the fact that the engraved bone comes from MSA levels thathave yielded 26 morphologically similar shaped bone awls, three probablebone spear points and a shaft fragment used as a retoucher re��touch?v. re��touched, re��touch��ing, re��touch��esv.tr.1. To add new details or touches to for correction or improvement.2. . On-goingtechnological analysis of this bone industry (Henshilwood et al.submitted) indicates that various techniques specifically conceived forbone material, such as scraping, polishing and fire hardening, were usedto modify the blanks and resharpen the tools. Some of these tools havesets of deliberate evenly spaced markings which may be interpretedeither as 'decoration', or to facilitate hafting or the gripduring use; alternatively they are makers' marks, or a signindicating ownership. Whatever the meaning of these spaced markings, itis clear that MSA people at BBC were familiar with bone workingtechniques, hence the use of bone for decoration is not unexpected,vis-a-vis the two pieces of engraved ochre recovered from the BBC MSAlevels (Henshilwood et al. in press). Functional and naturalinterpretations have been proposed for a number of isolated finds fromLower and Middle Palaeolithic sites in Europe and the Near East (cf.Chase & Dibble 1987; Klein 1995; d'Errico & Villa 1997).However, the shaping, marking and use of bone at BBC is a regularactivity. The techniques employed in bone modification at BBC arecomplex and must have been learned through linguistic communicationrather than by observation or mimicry. The multiple-stroke engravingtechnique employed on the described fragment is evidence for coherentbehaviour and technical knowledge that is shared and transmitted by acommunity. No functional interpretation of these lines can be reasonablyimplied, as has been suggested for utilized ochre from MSA sites (Klein2000). The two pieces of ochre from the BBC MSA are similar to the manythousands of pieces recovered from other MSA sites -- a criticaldifference is that both have abstract designs carefully engraved on onesurface (Henshilwood et al. in press). The basic design element on theochre pieces, sets of close parallel lines, is similar to those on themandibular fragment. A lithic point was used to engrave en��grave?tr.v. en��graved, en��grav��ing, en��graves1. To carve, cut, or etch into a material: engraved the champion's name on the trophy.2. both the ochreand bone, and the same technique of tracing multiple or single strokeswas applied. Also, the engravings on the ochre and bone are onrelatively small surfaces. The application of the BBC bone tools can befairly confidently established but their symbolic nature is less clear(Henshilwood et al. submitted). In contrast, engraved ochre clearlycarries symbolic meaning and utilized ochre strongly indicates its useas a pigment (although utilitarian uses cannot be ruled out), but inneither case is the application understood. Similarly the reasons forthe engraving of the BBC bone fragment and its use, if there was any,are both unclear. It is not unreasonable, therefore, to argue that thedeliberate engraving on the BBC bone fragment, as is the case for theengraved ochre, is a symbolic act and therefore carried symbolicmeaning. All these examples suggest an interlinking of technical andsymbolic tradition. If indeed these MSA traditions are linked, whichneeds to be demonstrated, then the identification of regional variantsin the way bone, ochre or other materials were modified may eventuallybe the way to recognize boundaries amongst different MSA symboliccultures. If a regional pattern is observable then the expression ofgroup identity is suggested. This would change our view of MSApeoples' cognitive abilities because the intentional transmissionof symbolic material culture and the use of symbols to express culturalidentity are impossible without the use of syntactic languages. In sum,it can be argued that the same ideational, technological and gesturalcomponents were used to produce symbolic representations on differentraw materials in the MSA at BBC. The BBC finds match most of thecriteria generally accepted for the identification of symbolic culture(e.g. Chase & Dibble 1987); however, as these authors rightly pointout, symbolic societies intentionally communicate cultural identities.To verify whether this is the case for the southern African MSA wouldrequire finding symbolic objects, similar to those from BBC, in theimmediate and greater region, and perhaps different (or even the same)symbolic representations with a separate code of meaning in otherregions. Given the very limited regional data available in southernAfrica and the problems with unravelling and interpreting symbolicmeaning in such deep time, this remains an unrealistic goal. Having established that the striations on the BBC bone fragment aredeliberately engraved lines, and with further publication of thegeometrically engraved ochre from the same site pending, it is hopedthis paper will stimulate analysis and publication of the scant body ofpotentially engraved objects from other MSA sites in southern Africa. Inconclusion, the deliberately engraved bone fragment from BBC isimportant, not only for its uniqueness, but also because it adds a newpiece to the puzzle in the future construction and recognition ofregional symbolic patterning in the southern African MSA. Acknowledgements. This work was supported by grants to CSH csh - C shell from theAnglo-American Chairman's Fund, Leakey Foundation, NationalGeographic Society, National Research Foundation, National ScienceFoundation (SBR-99-04540), University of Cape Town Coordinates: “UCT” redirects here. For other uses, see UCT (disambiguation). and Wenner-GrenFoundation. Thanks to the South African Museum and Graham Avery forinstitutional support. We thank Royden Yates, Ian Watts and Karen vanNiekerk for comments on earlier drafts. Royden Yates kindly suppliedsome of the figures. The study of symbolic material and the TL dating issupported by a grant to FD from the CNRS CNRS Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (National Center for Scientific Research, France)CNRS Centro Nacional de Referencia Para El Sida (Argentinean National Reference Center for Aids)program crigine del'Homme, du langage et des langues. 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The press was founded in 1936, and since that time has grown in size and in the scope of its publishing program. . WOODBORNE, S. & Z. JACOBS. In preparation. Dating the Stone Ageoccupation of Blombos Cave, Journal of Archaeological Science. Received 20 November 2000, accepted 7 February 2001, revised 9March 2001 FRANCESCO D'ERRICO, CHRISTOPHER HENSHILWOOD & PETERNILSSEN(*) (*) d'Errico, Institut de Prehistoire et de Geologie duQuaternaire, UMR UMR Unite Mixte de Recherche (French: Mixed Unit of Research )UMR University of Missouri - RollaUMR Upper Mississippi RiverUMR Uniform Methods and Rules (US Department of Agriculture)UMR Unit Manning Report 5808 CNRS, Avenue des Facultes, 33405 Talence, France.f. derrico@iquat.u-bordeaux.fr Henshilwood, Department of Anthropology,State University of New York (body) State University of New York - (SUNY) The public university system of New York State, USA, with campuses throughout the state. , Stony Brook NY 11794, USA. Henshilwood& Nilssen, Human Sciences Division, South African Museum, QueenVictoria Street, Cape Town 8001, South Africa.