Teaching skills to second and third grade children to prevent gun play: a comparison of procedures.

Teaching skills to second and third grade children to prevent gun play: a comparison of procedures. Abstract A posttest post��test?n.A test given after a lesson or a period of instruction to determine what the students have learned. only control group design was used to investigate theeffects of two programs to teach firearm firearm,device consisting essentially of a straight tube to propel shot, shell, or bullets by the explosion of gunpowder. Although the Chinese discovered gunpowder as early as the 9th cent., they did not develop firearms until the mid-14th cent. injury prevention skills tosecond and third grade children. Children were taught the safety skills"Stop. Don't don't?1. Contraction of do not.2. Nonstandard Contraction of does not.n.A statement of what should not be done: a list of the dos and don'ts. touch. Leave the area. Tell an adult."should they ever find a firearm. The effectiveness of the National Rifle rifle:see small arms. rifleFirearm whose barrel is rifled (i.e., has spiral grooves cut inside it to give a spin to the projectile). Though usually applied to a weapon fired from the shoulder, the name can also refer to a rifled cannon. Association's Eddie Eagle This article is about the NRA's safety program. For the British ski-jumper, see Eddie 'the Eagle' Edwards. The Eddie Eagle program was developed by the National Rifle Association for children who are generally considered too young to be allowed to handle GunSafe Program (Level Two) was comparedto a Behavioral behavioralpertaining to behavior.behavioral disorderssee vice.behavioral seizuresee psychomotor seizure. Skills Training (BST (convention) BST - British Summer Time. The name for daylight-saving time in the UK GMT time zone. ) procedure in reducing gunplaybehaviors. Participants were trained according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. either the Eddie Eagleprogram or the BST procedure in one session lasting forty-five minutesto an hour. Self-report, role-play role-playv.To assume deliberately the part or role of; act out.n.Role-playing. , and in-situ adj. 1. being in the original position; not having been moved or transferred to another location; as, an in-situinvestigator s>.Adj. 1. assessments were used todetermine the effects of each treatment. Those children notdemonstrating the target skills at assessment received an additionalin-situ training session and a second assessment. Findings showed that(a) both programs were successful in teaching children to verbally statethe target behaviors as compared to the control group; (b) theBehavioral Skills Training program and the Eddie Eagle program wereequally effective in teaching children to role-play the skills, and theBehavioral Skills Training group was superior to the control group; (c)there were no differences among any of the conditions in regards tomeasures of in-situ assessment; and (d) children in each group varied onthe amount of in-situ training sessions needed before displaying thetarget behavior. ********** Firearm-related injury and death in children is a public healthproblem (Dresang, 2001; Zwerling et al., 1993). In the United States United States,officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. from 1979-1994, 11,918 children under the age of 15 were killed byfirearms This is an extensive list of small arms — pistol, machine gun, grenade launcher, anti-tank rifle — that includes variants.: Top - 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y ZAA-91 (Russia - Compact Assault Rifle - 5. (Cummings, Grossman Grossman is a family name of germanic and Jewish Ashkenazi origin (in German Grossmann or Gro?mann). Adam Grossman Albert Grossman Alex Grossman Allan Grossman Austin Grossman Bathsheba Grossman Blake Grossman Burt Grossman , Rivara, & Koepsell, 1997). Of thesefatalities, 4,173 were unintentional (Cummings et al., 1997). It hasbeen estimated that for every person under the age of 25 who is fatally fa��tal��ly?adv.1. So as to cause death; mortally: fatally injured.2. So as to result in disaster or ruin.3. According to the decree of fate; inevitably.Adv. 1. wounded by a firearm, at least 4 more people are injured in��jure?tr.v. in��jured, in��jur��ing, in��jures1. To cause physical harm to; hurt.2. To cause damage to; impair.3. by firearms(American Academy of Pediatrics The American Academy of Pediatrics ("AAP") is an organization of pediatricians, physicians trained to deal with the medical care of infants, children, and adolescents. Its motto is: "Dedicated to the Health of All Children. Committee on Injury and Poison poison,any agent that may produce chemically an injurious or deadly effect when introduced into the body in sufficient quantity. Some poisons can be deadly in minute quantities, others only if relatively large amounts are involved. Prevention, 2000). During 1995, firearm-related injuries were the sixthleading cause of death for children between 5 and 9 years of age, andthe eighth leading cause of death for children between 1 and 4 years ofage (Stennies, Ikeda Ikeda,city (1990 pop. 104,218), Osaka prefecture, S Honshu, Japan, on the Ina River. It is an industrial and residential suburb of Osaka with industries that include engine manufacture, brewing, and woodworking. , Leadbetter, Houston Houston,city (1990 pop. 1,630,553), seat of Harris co., SE Tex., a deepwater port on the Houston Ship Channel; inc. 1837.EconomyThe fourth largest city in the nation and the largest in the entire South and Southwest, Houston is a port of entry; , & Sacks, 1999). Mostrecently, it has been reported that from 1993-2000, 143 children wereaccidentally killed and 1,222 accidentally injured each year by firearms(Eber EBER Electron Beam Electro-Reflectance , Annest, Mercy, & Ryan Ryan may refer to: PlacesDivision of Ryan, an electoral district in the Australian House of Representatives, in Queensland Ryan, Iowa Ryan, Oklahoma Ryan Township, Pennsylvania Ryan, New South Wales Film and television , 2004). Surveys conducted in the United States show that gun ownershipranges from 20% to 37% of all homes (Haught a. 1. High; elevated; hence, haughty; proud. , Grossman, & Connell Connell can refer to: PeopleDesmond Connell, Cardinal Archbishop of Dublin and Primate of Ireland Charles Connell (1810-1873), Canadian politician Charles R. ,1995; Senturia, Christoffel, & Donovan Don��o��van? , William Joseph Known as "Wild Bill." 1883-1959.American army officer and public official who founded and directed (1942-1945) the Office of Strategic Services, an intelligence-gathering agency that was a forerunner of the CIA. , 1994; Stennies et al.,1999). From 10% to 18% of gun owners also report keeping their firearmsunlocked and loaded (Coyne-Beasley, Schoenbach, & Johnson, 2001;Farah Farah(färä`), town (1985 est. pop. 21,000), capital of Farah prov., W Afghanistan, on the Farah River. Surrounded by a solid earth rampart, it is strategically located at the river crossing that controls the road from Herat to the Seistan & Simon, 1999; Haught et al., 1995). Although gun owners withchildren are more likely to store their firearms locked and unloaded(Coyne-Beasley et al., 2001), there are still many parents who storefirearms unsafely in their home (Farah & Simon, 1999;Knight-Bohnhoff & Harris Harris,Scotland: see Lewis and Harris. , 1998; Stennies et al., 1999). In a sampleof 80 parents in the southwest United States, almost half kept at leastone firearm in the home, 20% of parents kept these firearms loaded atall times, and 18% of parents who owned a firearm stored it in reach ofa child (Knight-Bohnhoff & Harris, 1998). Similar results were foundin other studies assessing parental gun storage practices (Farah &Simon, 1999; Senturia et al., 1994). In one sample of 400 parents, 28%reported owning a firearm, 52% of gun owners indicated that they storedthe gun either loaded or unlocked, and 13% reported storing the gun bothloaded and unlocked (Farah & Simon, 1999). It has been estimatedthat approximately 6.8 million homes in the United States currently havea firearm that is stored unlocked and loaded and 1.6 million of thesehomes contain children (Stennies et al., 1999). It has also been arguedthat these figures may be an underestimation due to underreporting ofunsafe storage practices (Wiley Wiley may refer to: Wiley, Colorado, a U.S. town Wiley-Kaserne, a district of the city of Neu-Ulm, Germany USS Wiley (DD-597), a U.S. destroyer from the nineteenth century named after William Wiley Wiley College, a college in Texas founded by Isaac Wiley & Casey Casey is an Irish surname, and may refer to Al Casey Al Casey (rockabilly) Albert Casey Albert Vincent Casey Anne Casey Ben Casey Bernie Casey Bill Casey Bob Casey, Jr., U.S. Senator (D-PA), son of late Pennsylvania Gov. Robert P. Casey. , 1993). Handguns pose a unique risk to children as compared to otherfirearms because they are more likely to be stored unsafely andconstitute the majority of firearm-related injuries with children(American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Injury and PoisonPrevention, 2000). Most gun owners report owning at least one handgun(Farah & Simon, 1999; Haught et al., 1995; Weil & Hemenway,1992). One study showed that parents who owned a handgun were 14 timesmore likely than individuals who owned a rifle or shotgun shotgun:see small arms. shotgunSmoothbore shoulder firearm designed to fire a number of pellets, or shot, that cover a large target area after they leave the muzzle. It is used mainly against small game such as birds. to keep thegun unlocked and loaded (Farah & Simon, 1999). Although protectionhas been one of the most commonly cited reasons for owning a handgun(Coyne-Beasley et al., 2001; Haught et al., 1995; Knight-Bohnhoff &Harris, 1998), it has been estimated that handguns kept in the home are18 times more likely to be involved in the shooting of a family memberthan an intruder An attacker that gains, or tries to gain, unauthorized access to a system. See attacker, intrusion and IDS. (Kellermann Kellermann or Kellerman is a German surname, which may refer to: KellermannArthur Kellermann Kenneth Kellermann, astronomer Kellermann family of Alsace & Reay Reay (Scottish Gaelic: Ratha) is a village which has grown around Sandside Bay on the north coast of the Highland council area of Scotland. It is within the historic Parish of Reay and the historic county of Caithness. , 1986). Research has shown that the majority of firearm-related injuries inchildren occur in the home due to children playing Album InfoArtist: Ziggy Marley & The Melody Makers Genre: Reggae Label: EMI Records and Tuff Gong Year: 1986 TracksSide 1 Met Her On A Rainy Day Reggae Is Now Children Playing in the Streets Rock It Baby with an improperly im��prop��er?adj.1. Not suited to circumstances or needs; unsuitable: improper shoes for a hike; improper medical treatment.2. stored handgun (Grossman, Reay, & Barker barkera term for an animal that does not usually bark which makes a violent respiratory effort, often during a convulsion, accompanied by a sound which roughly resembles a dog's bark. , 1999; Martin, Sklar, &McFeeley, 1991; Ordog et al., 1988; Wintemute, Teret Ter´eta. 1. Round; terete. , Kraus Kraus (German for curly) is a common surname. Some people with this name include: Alanna Kraus Alfredo Kraus, a Spanish opera singer Christian Jakob Kraus (1753-1807), economist Friedrich Kraus, Bohemian Austrian physician , Wright,& Bradfield Bradfield may refer to: Bradfield, Berkshire, England Bradfield, Devon, England Bradfield, Essex, England Bradfield, Norfolk, England Bradfield, South Yorkshire, Sheffield, England Bradfield College, a public school in Bradfield, Berkshire, England , 1987). Although most parents believe that theirchildren would not touch a real gun or would tell an adult if they founda firearm, research has shown that when children encounter firearms theyoften lack the skills needed to respond safely (e.g., Himle,Miltenberger, Flessner, & Gatheridge, 2002; Miltenberger et al.,2004). In one study of 4- to 7-year-olds, half of the children touched agun that they found in a play area (Hardy Hardy may refer to: Hardy (blacksmithing) Hardiness (plants), the ability to survive adverse growing conditions Hardy (surname) The Hardy Boys, a detective series Hardy Boyz, a wrestling team composed of Matt Hardy and Jeff Hardy , 2002). Another study foundthat 76% of boys between the ages of 8 and 12 who found a firearm in astructured play setting handled the gun (Jackman Jack´mann. 1. One wearing a jack; a horse soldier; a retainer. See 3d Jack,n. os>Christie . . . the laird's chief jackman.- Sir W. Scott.2. A cream cheese. , Farah, Kellermann,& Simon, 2001). Based on the research cited, it stands to reason that manyunintentional firearm injuries and fatalities would be preventable ifparents stored their guns safely (locked and unloaded) or if childrenlearned the safety skills needed to respond safely when finding a gun.Much of the focus on firearm injury prevention has been on limiting theaccessibility of firearms to children, with one approach involvingphysicians counseling families about the dangers of firearms (AmericanAcademy of Pediatrics Committee on Injury and Poison Prevention, 2000;Dresang, 2001; Olson Olson may refer to: Olson (constructor), a former racing car constructor Olson Software Olson database, also known as zoneinfo database Sigurd Olson Environmental Institute Olson (surname), people with the given name Olson , Christoffel, & O'Connor O'Con��nor? , Flannery 1925-1964.American writer whose novels Wise Blood (1952) and The Violent Bear It Away (1960) and short stories, collected in such works as A Good Man Is Hard to Find , 1997; Rivara& Stapleton Stapleton may refer to: PlacesUnited KingdomStapleton, Bristol Stapleton, Cumbria Stapleton, Herefordshire Stapleton, Leicestershire Stapleton, Richmondshire, North Yorkshire Stapleton, Selby, North Yorkshire , 1982). Unfortunately, efforts to make guns lessaccessible to children have met with limited success. In a sample of 215parents, only 19% of mothers and 10% of fathers reported that they wouldremove a firearm from their home based on the advice of a pediatrician pe��di��a��tri��cianor pe��di��at��ristn.A specialist in pediatrics. (Webster Webster,town (1990 pop. 16,196), Worcester co., S Mass., near the Conn. line; settled c.1713, set off from Dudley and Oxford and inc. 1832. The chief manufactures are footwear, fabrics, and textiles. , Wilson Wilson,city (1990 pop. 36,930), seat of Wilson co., E N.C., in a rich agricultural region; inc. 1849. It is a commercial and industrial center with a large tobacco market. Manufactures include textile goods (especially clothing), metal products, and processed foods. , Duggan, & Pakula, 1992). It has also been reportedthat, in spite of in opposition to all efforts of; in defiance or contempt of; notwithstanding.See also: Spite being encouraged to counsel parents about the dangerof firearms in a home, few pediatricians currently do so (Grossman,Mang, & Rivara, 1995). Because prevention efforts aimed at parents have been largelyunsuccessful, it has been argued that more emphasis needs to be placedon teaching children the skills necessary to prevent firearm injuries(Himle, Miltenberger, Gatheridge, & Flessner, 2004). Accordingly,recent research has evaluated procedures for teaching children skills toprevent gun play (Gatheridge et al., 2004; Himle, Miltenberger,Flessner, & Gatheridge, 2004; Himle, Miltenberger, Gatheridge, &Flessner, 2004; Miltenberger et al., 2004). The first studies toevaluate educational procedures for teaching young children skills toprevent gun play showed that the children did not benefit from training(Hardy, 2002; Hardy, Armstrong, Martin, & Strawn Strawn can refer to either of two places in the United States: Strawn in Illinois, and Strawn in Texas. , 1996). However,more recent research has shown that a behavioral skills training (BST)approach can be successful in teaching 4- to 7-year-old children safetyskills to prevent gun play (Gatheridge et al., 2004; Himle,Miltenberger, Flessner, & Gatheridge, 2004; Miltenberger et al.,2004). BST uses an active learning approach involving instructions,modeling, behavioral rehearsal re��hears��aln.The process of repeating information, such as a name or a list of words, in order to remember it.re��hearse v. , praise, and corrective cor��rec��tiveadj.Counteracting or modifying what is malfunctioning, undesirable, or injurious.n.An agent that corrects.corrective,n feedback to teachsafety skills. The first study to investigate the effectiveness of BST comparedBST to the National Rifle Association's Eddie Eagle GunSafe Program(Level 1) for teaching safety skills to 4- and 5-year-old children(Himle, Miltenberger, Gatheridge, & Flessner, 2004). Both procedureswere designed to teach the same safety skills needed upon finding a gun;"Stop. Don't touch. Leave the area. Tell an adult." Theresults of this study showed that, following five sessions of training,children in the BST and Eddie Eagle groups learned to describe thesafety skills when asked what to do when finding a gun. When asked todemonstrate the skills in a role play with a real gun, however, only thechildren in the BST group engaged in the safety skills. Although thechildren trained with Eddie Eagle could describe the skills, they couldnot demonstrate the skills when asked. Unfortunately, children inneither group exhibited the skills upon finding a gun while alone duringan in situ In place. When something is "in situ," it is in its original location. assessment in which they did not know they were beingassessed. These results showed that children trained with Eddie Eaglenever learned the skills and that children trained with BST learned theskills but that the skills failed to generalize generalize/gen��er��al��ize/ (-iz)1. to spread throughout the body, as when local disease becomes systemic.2. to form a general principle; to reason inductively. to a naturalistic nat��u��ral��is��tic?adj.1. Imitating or producing the effect or appearance of nature.2. Of or in accordance with the doctrines of naturalism. situation. Two subsequent studies showed that 4- and 5-year-old childrenlearned the skills to prevent gun play following BST (Himle,Miltenberger, Flessner, & Gatheridge, 2004; Miltenberger et al.,2005). In these studies the combination of individual BST and in situtraining resulted in the acquisition, generalization gen��er��al��i��za��tionn.1. The act or an instance of generalizing.2. A principle, a statement, or an idea having general application. , and maintenance ofthe safety skills for each of the 4-and 5-year-old participants. In situtraining was implemented if five sessions of BST did not lead to thecorrect use of the safety skills. In the in situ training procedure,when the child failed to use the safety skills upon finding the gun, atrainer entered the assessment situation and conducted further training. In another published study, the effectiveness of BST and EddieEagle was evaluated with 6-and 7-year-olds to see whether school agechildren would benefit from training (Gatheridge et al., 2004). In thisinvestigation, children who received BST demonstrated the safety skillsduring self-report, role play, and in situ assessments. That is,following training they could say what to do upon finding a gun, theycould demonstrate the skills, and they used the skills when they found agun without awareness that they were being assessed. Children in theEddie Eagle group could describe the skills but could not demonstratethe skills nor use the skills during an in situ assessment.Interestingly, following one in situ training session, 11 of the 13children in the Eddie Eagle group who failed to use the skills duringthe in situ assessment were able to demonstrate the skills in asubsequent assessment. One other investigation also showed BST and insitu training to be effective for teaching 6- and 7-year-olds skills toprevent gun play (Miltenberger et al., 2004). From the research evaluating procedures for teaching safety skillsto prevent gun play, it appears that BST can be an effective procedurewith 4- to 7-year-old children, but that it is more effective with theschool age children (6- and 7-year-olds) (Gatheridge et al., 2004;Himle, Miltenberger, Gatheridge, & Flessner, 2004). Furthermore,although the Eddie Eagle program was not effective with 4- to 7-year-oldchildren, one session of in situ training following training with EddieEagle did result in the use of the safety skills by the 6- and7-year-olds. These results demonstrate that an active learning approach(BST) is more effective than an information approach (Eddie Eagle) totraining safety skills with 4- to 7-year-old children. However, the ageof the child seemed to be an important factor influencing theeffectiveness of training, with training being more effective with the6- and 7-year-old children. The purpose of the current investigation was to evaluate theeffectiveness of BST and the Eddie Eagle program with older children (8-and 9-year-olds) and to evaluate the effects of in situ trainingfollowing BST and Eddie Eagle. It is important to evaluate BST with 8-and 9-year-olds given its success with younger children and to evaluateEddie Eagle given its wide-scale use. It has been estimated that theEddie Eagle program has been used with 15 million children since 1998 inan attempt to teach firearm injury prevention skills (National RifleAssociation National Rifle Association (NRA)Governing organization for the sport of shooting with rifles and pistols. It was founded in Britain in 1860. The U.S. organization, formed in 1871, has a membership of some four million. Both the British and the U.S. Safety and Education Division, 2001). However, no researchhas been published demonstrating the efficacy of the Eddie Eagle programwith 8- and 9-year-olds. It was hypothesized that (a) children trainedwith Eddie Eagle and BST would score higher than the control group onthe self-report assessment; (b) children receiving training with BSTwould score better than Eddie Eagle and control participants onrole-play assessments; (c) BST participants would perform significantlybetter then Eddie Eagle or control participants during in-situassessments; and (d) for BST and Eddie Eagle participants who did notperform to criterion during the in-situ assessment, one in-situ trainingsession would increase their performance to criterion. Method Participants We sent a letter to parents of all second and third grade studentsfrom two local after-school programs (about 60 students). The letterdescribed the study and asked interested parents to contact theresearchers. The researchers met with interested parents and childrenand had parents sign informed consent forms and children sign youthassent An intentional approval of known facts that are offered by another for acceptance; agreement; consent.Express assent is manifest confirmation of a position for approval. forms. Participating parents also completed a brief interviewabout the presence of guns in their homes. A few children who hadreceived previous firearm safety training were excluded fromparticipating. Thirty 8- and 9-year-old children, 16 boys and 14 girls,agreed to participate in the study. They were randomly assigned as��sign?tr.v. as��signed, as��sign��ing, as��signs1. To set apart for a particular purpose; designate: assigned a day for the inspection.2. to threegroups, control, BST, and Eddie Eagle. Twenty eight children completedthe study. Of the 30 original participants, 68% of parents reportedhaving talked with their child informally about the dangers of firearmsor what to do if he or she should ever find a gun. Forty percent ofparents reported that their child had been exposed to firearms, and ofthose children who had been exposed to firearms 44% had handled or shota firearm. Thirty two percent of the participants had firearms presentin their household, all of these homes contained rifles or shotguns This is a list of shotguns. Shotguns fire pellets stored in large shells that are normally loaded into a chamber, one shell at a time. Each shell may contain as many as 200 pellets. , and29% also had handguns present. Of those homes with firearms present, 71%of parents reported that their children were aware of the presence ofthe firearms, 14% reported that their child was unaware of the firearm,and 14% said that they did not know if their child was aware of thefirearm. Setting All training sessions and assessments were conducted at thechild's after-school program. Assessments were performed in alocation other than the one used in training. Experimental Design We used a posttest only control group design employing twotreatment groups, Eddie Eagle GunSafe Program (Level 2) and BehavioralSkills Training (BST). Target Behaviors The target behaviors were to "Stop. Don't touch. Leavethe area. Tell an adult." upon finding a gun. Each of the targetbehaviors was assigned a numeric numericsee numerical.numeric clustersee ten-key pad. value as follows: 0 = The child touchedthe firearm regardless of the ensuing en��sue?intr.v. en��sued, en��su��ing, en��sues1. To follow as a consequence or result. See Synonyms at follow.2. To take place subsequently. behavior; 1 = The child did nottouch the firearm but did not leave the area immediately or tell anadult; 2 = The child did not touch the firearm, left the areaimmediately, but did not tell an adult about the presence of thefirearm; 3 = The child did not touch the firearm, left the areaimmediately, and relayed information about the presence of the firearmto an adult. Assessment Data were collected using self-report, role-play, and in-situassessments. All assessments were conducted by graduate students trainedwith BST by the first author. Self-report and role-play assessments wereconducted immediately following training for the Eddie Eagle and BSTgroups and prior to the in-situ assessment for the control group.In-situ assessments were conducted within one week of training. Thosechildren who did not score a 3 during their first in-situ assessmentparticipated in an in-situ training session, followed by a subsequentin-situ assessment one week later. In-situ assessments and in-situtraining continued until the child demonstrated the target skills duringan in-situ assessment. Immediately following all assessments, theresearcher who conducted the assessment recorded the child'sresponses. Self-report assessment. Self-report assessments involved askingeach child to report how he or she would respond to a "What wouldyou do if ..." situation. For example, the researcher presented tothe child a scenario such as, "You are at a friend's houseplaying in the backyard and you find a gun under the steps." Thechild would then be asked what his or her subsequent response to thehypothetical Hypothetical is an adjective, meaning of or pertaining to a hypothesis. See: Hypothesis HypotheticalHypothetical (album) situation would be. The researcher wrote down thechild's responses verbatim ver��ba��tim?adj.Using exactly the same words; corresponding word for word: a verbatim report of the conversation.adv. . The researcher who participated in theinitial training session with the child conducted the self-reportassessments. Role-play assessment. These assessments consisted of a stagedscenario in which an object was placed in a location in the after schoolprogram facility and the child was asked to pretend that it was afirearm and to demonstrate what he or she would do if the child found agun in the situation described. The researcher presented a hypotheticalscenario to the child and constructed the environment to resemble thesituation presented verbally. For example, the child was presented withthe following scenario: "Pretend that you are at home playing inthe attic In the Attic can refer to: In The Attic (webcast) In the Attic (band) . You are going through some boxes that have old clothes andpictures in them. In one of the boxes you take out some of the contentsand find a gun at the bottom. What would you do?" The child wasthen required to act out the scenario and demonstrate to the researcherwhat he or she would do. This assessment was scored by the trainer atthe time of the assessment and was conducted by a researcher whoparticipated in the initial training session. In-situ assessment. The participant was placed in a situation inwhich he or she found a firearm in his or her natural environment whilealone. The assessment was conducted by arranging a situation in whichthe child was instructed by one of the after-school program staff or anunknown confederate to go into a separate room and engage in an activityor perform a known task. Prior to the request, a disabled firearm(obtained from the local police department) was placed in a locationwhere it would be found if the child complied with the request. Thechild's behavior was observed without the child's knowledgethat he or she was being assessed. All assessments were videotapedunless the researcher could see the child without his or her presencebeing known. The in-situ assessments were conducted at the after-schoolprogram facility in a location that was not included in the initialtraining session. Interobserver Reliability Interobserver reliability was calculated for all three forms ofassessment. Independent observers who were blind to the condition of theparticipant scored the videotape videotapeMagnetic tape used to record visual images and sound, or the recording itself. There are two types of videotape recorders, the transverse (or quad) and the helical. and assigned a numeric value to eachtarget behavior. Agreement was calculated by dividing the number ofagreements on the four possible target behaviors by the number ofagreements plus disagreements and multiplying mul��ti��ply?1?v. mul��ti��plied, mul��ti��ply��ing, mul��ti��pliesv.tr.1. To increase the amount, number, or degree of.2. Mathematics To perform multiplication on. by 100. A reliabilityobserver scored approximately 25% of the assessment sessions (everyfourth assessment) for each group. The percentage of interobserveragreement was 100%. Procedure Participants in the study were randomly assigned to one of threeconditions; the Eddie Eagle group (n = 10), the BST group (n = 9), orthe control group (n = 9). Random assignment was done within eachafter-school site. Eddie Eagle. Children in this group received training according tothe teaching manual provided with the National Rifle Association'sEddie Eagle GunSafe Program (Level Two). The training session lastedapproximately 45 minutes to 1 hour, as suggested in the instructionalguide. Two to five children participated in each training group with theexception of one child who was trained individually. This program used avariety of age-appropriate activities (e.g., a video, coloringactivities, stories, role-play activities) to teach children what to doif they should find a firearm. The target message of the program was"Stop. Don't touch. Leave the area. Tell an adult." Atthe beginning of the training session an Eddie Eagle poster wasdisplayed in anticipation of instruction. Participants were shown avideo titled "Learn Gun Safety with Eddie Eagle" and were thenasked to remember the important message that was contained in the video.After viewing the video, participants were asked what the importantmessage portrayed por��tray?tr.v. por��trayed, por��tray��ing, por��trays1. To depict or represent pictorially; make a picture of.2. To depict or describe in words.3. To represent dramatically, as on the stage. in the video was and the message was discussed as agroup. The Eddie Eagle poster was then used to review the safety messageof "Stop. Don't touch. Leave the area. Tell an adult."Two or three children were selected to demonstrate the message. Each participant was then given a workbook work��book?n.1. A booklet containing problems and exercises that a student may work directly on the pages.2. A manual containing operating instructions, as for an appliance or machine.3. containing stories basedon the video that are designed to illustrate the general safety message.The stories were read aloud together and the subsequent activities inthe booklet were completed. The ending to each story was discussed andbefore concluding the activities it was determined that the childrenknew the correct answers. Gun safety concepts were discussed by askingparticipants questions such as "Do you have toy guns in your home?What is the difference between a toy gun and a real gun?" Childrenwere then asked to imagine themselves in a variety of settings and asked"Who would be a safe person to go to for help if you found a gun...?" In their small groups, participants were instructed torole-play a scenario in which they find a gun. An example of a scenariothat was used is, "You and your cousins are spending the afternoonat your grandparents' house. You are playing in their den and yousee a gun cabinet. Your cousins dare you to open it. What do you say?What do you do?" Participants were encouraged to share theirworkbooks and the safety message with their parents at home. At thecompletion of training, children received a sticker and certificate ofcompletion. Behavioral Skills Training (BST). The BST program used instruction,modeling, rehearsal, and corrective feedback to teach children thesafety skills. The safety skills trained in this program were the sameas those taught in the Eddie Eagle program. Training in this conditionlasted approximately 45 minutes depending on the number of childrenbeing trained. The length of the BST training session was equivalent tothe length of the Eddie Eagle training session. The session began withthe researchers briefly discussing the dangers of playing with firearms.Next, the researchers told the participants what to do if they everfound a gun (i.e., "Stop. Don't touch. Leave the area. Tell anadult."). The students then verbalized the message together andindividually. The researchers then modeled the behaviors in the chain byapproaching the gun (a disabled firearm from the police department), nottouching the firearm, leaving the area, and telling an adult. Theresearchers verbalized the safety message while the chain of behaviorswas being demonstrated. Each child then had the opportunity to practicethe behavior. The researchers provided the participant with praise ifthey performed the behaviors correctly. If the participant did notperform the behavior properly, corrective feedback was given and theresearchers again modeled the correct response. This process continueduntil each participant was able to perform the complete chain ofbehaviors without error. The participants were then presented with various role-playscenarios. Following the presentation of these situations, participantswere asked to practice the safety behaviors. The researchers instructedthe participants to pretend that they were in a number of differentsituations where they found a gun, including finding a firearm on theplayground Playground - A visual language for children, developed for Apple's Vivarium Project. OOPSLA 89 or 90? , in the garage at home, or at a friend's house in thecloset. The children then performed the chain of safety behaviors afterfinding the gun in the simulated situations. The training sessioncontinued until the participants had performed the behaviors correctlyon five consecutive occasions. In-situ Training. If a child in the Eddie Eagle or BST group didnot engage in the correct behavior during an in situ assessmentfollowing training, an in-situ training session occurred. During anin-situ training session, the trainers interrupted in��ter��rupt?v. in��ter��rupt��ed, in��ter��rupt��ing, in��ter��ruptsv.tr.1. To break the continuity or uniformity of: Rain interrupted our baseball game.2. a failed assessment(i.e., an assessment in which the child found a firearm but did notcomplete the chain of safety behaviors) and turned the assessment into atraining session. The trainers provided corrective feedback regardingthe child's performance and then had the child rehearse re��hearse?v. re��hearsed, re��hears��ing, re��hears��esv.tr.1. a. To practice (a part in a play, for example) in preparation for a public performance.b. the skills.The child was then guided through a series of practice scenarios inwhich he or she was required to rehearse the skills correctly fiveconsecutive times. No-training control group. Children in this group received noformal instruction. Following assessment, children received trainingwith the BST procedure (see above). Results Figure 1 displays the mean behavior scores across each of the threeconditions for the self report and role play measures. Figure 2 displaysthe mean behavior scores across each of the three conditions for theinitial in situ assessment and the second in situ assessment. AKruskal-Wallis test was conducted to analyze the resulting data. Thistest was chosen for analysis due to the ordinal (mathematics) ordinal - An isomorphism class of well-ordered sets. nature of the data andbecause it is distribution free. A significant overall effect was demonstrated for the self-reportassessments, H (2, n = 28) = 17.237, p < .001. Subsequent analysis ofthe self-report assessment data indicated that participants in both theEddie Eagle condition, (M = 3.00, SD = .000), H (1, n = 19) = 13.526, p< .001, and the BST condition, (M = 2.78, SD = .441), H (1, n = 19) =8.213, p < .05, scored significantly higher than the controlcondition (M = 1.67, SD = .866) on this assessment measure. The EddieEagle condition and the BST condition were not significantly different,H (1, n = 19) = 2.353, p = .125. Shown in Table 1 are the percentages ofobtained scores for each group on measures of self-report assessments. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] The differences among conditions approached significance for therole-play assessments, H (2, n = 28) = 5.791, p = .055. AdditionalKruskal-Wallis tests performed on the role-play assessment measuresindicated a significant difference in the behavioral scores obtainedbetween the BST condition (M = 3.00, SD = .000), and the controlcondition, (M = 1.78, SD = 1.481), H (1, n = 18) = 4.800, p < .05,showing that participants in the BST condition scored significantlyhigher than participants in the control condition. There were nosignificant differences between the scores in the Eddie Eagle condition(M = 2.70, SD = .675), and the BST condition, H (1, n = 19) = 1.900, p =.168, or between scores in the Eddie Eagle condition and the controlcondition, H (1, n = 19) = 2.073, p = .150. Shown in Table 2 are thepercentages of obtained scores for each group on measures of role-playassessments. [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] There was no significant overall effect for the initial in-situassessments, H (2, n = 27) = 1.832, p = .400. Furthermore, nosignificant effects were observed among any of the conditions on theinitial in-situ assessment. The Eddie Eagle condition (M = 2.00, SD =1.155), did not differ significantly from the BST condition, (M = 2.22,SD = .972), H (1, n =19) = .191, p = .662, or the control condition, (M= 1.50, SD = 1.195), H (1, n =18) = .861, p = .353, and the BSTcondition did not differ significantly from the control condition, H (1,n =17) = 1.737, p; = .187. It is noteworthy that, during the firstin-situ assessment, two of the ten participants in the Eddie Eaglegroup, and two of eight in the control group received a behavioral scoreof 0 (touched the gun) while none of the participants in the BSTcondition touched the firearm. Shown in Table 3 are the percentages ofobtained scores for each group on measures of in-situ assessment. With regards to the in-situ training that was implemented after theinitial failed in-situ assessment, six of the ten participants in theEddie Eagle condition and four of the nine participants in the BSTrequired in-situ training after their first in-situ assessment. Of thosein the Eddie Eagle group who required additional training, four of thesix participants received one in-situ training session beforedemonstrating the target behavior in a subsequent in-situ assessment,and one participant received two in-situ training sessions beforeengaging in the target behavior. One participant did not display thetarget behavior after the first or second in-situ training session butwas not available for a third in-situ assessment. With regards to theBST condition, of the four participants who did not display the targetbehavior during the initial in-situ assessment, one participant requiredonly one in-situ training session, two participants required two in-situtraining sessions, and one participant required three in-situ trainingsessions, before demonstrating the target behavior during an in-situassessment. There was a significant overall effect for the second in-situassessments, H (2, n = 27) = 6.860, p < .005. AdditionalKruskal-Wallis tests performed on the second in-situ assessment measuresshowed a significant difference in the behavioral scores obtainedbetween the Eddie Eagle condition (M = 2.70, SD = .675), and the controlcondition (M = 1.50, SD = 1.195), H (1, n = 18) = 5.543, p < .05,showing that participants in the Eddie Eagle condition scoredsignificantly higher than participants in the control condition aftertraining with Eddie Eagle and one in-situ training for thoseparticipants that required it. There was also a significant differencebetween the BST condition (M = 2.56, SD = .726), and the controlcondition, (M = 1.50, SD = 1.195), H (1, n = 17) = 3.804, p < .05,showing that participants in the BST condition scored significantlyhigher than participants in the control condition after training withBST and one in-situ training session. Shown in Table 4 are thepercentages of obtained scores for each group on the second in-situassessments. Discussion The first hypothesis of the study was supported. Children in boththe Eddie Eagle and BST condition performed significantly better thanthe control condition in verbally identifying the correct safetybehaviors. In addition, the Eddie Eagle group did not significantlydiffer from the BST group. The second hypothesis, that children in the BST group would besuperior to children in the Eddie Eagle group in terms of role-playing role-play��ingn.A psychotherapeutic technique, designed to reduce the conflict inherent in various social situations, in which participants act out particular behavioral roles in order to expand their awareness of differing points of view. the target behaviors, was not supported. Children in the BST and EddieEagle conditions did not show any significant differences statisticallyin terms of role-play assessments, although every child in the BSTcondition was able to correctly demonstrate the skills in a role-play ascompared to only 8 of 10 children in the Eddie Eagle condition. Childrenin the BST condition were significantly better in their role-playperformance than were children in the control condition, however,children in the Eddie Eagle group did not differ significantly fromcontrols. These results are somewhat similar to previous studies(Gatheridge et al., 2004; Himle, Miltenberger, Gatheridge, &Flessner, 2004), although in this case the differences between the BSTand Eddie Eagle conditions did not meet statistical significance. Contrary to what was predicted, children in the Eddie Eagle and BSTconditions did not differ during the in-situ assessment, suggesting thatthe programs did not differ in teaching children to perform the targetskills in a realistic situation. This finding is contrary to otherstudies that have shown BST to be superior to Eddie Eagle in teachingchildren gun safety behavior when assessed in-situ (Gatheridge et al.,2004; Himle, Miltenberger, Gatheridge, & Flessner, 2004).Furthermore, there were no differences between either of theseconditions and the control condition, implying that neither program waseffective in teaching children to perform the safety skills. The final hypothesis of the study, that one in-situ trainingsession would be effective in teaching the target skills, also receivedlittle support. Although half of the children who did not perform tocriterion on the first in-situ assessment were able to perform theskills after one in-situ training session (four of six children in theEddie Eagle group and one of four children in the BST group), otherchildren needed two or three in-situ training sessions before performingthe skills required. Nonetheless, all BST and Eddie Eagle childrenultimately performed the skills correctly when finding a gun in anin-situ assessment. These results suggest that in-situ training is aneffective adjunct adjunct (aj´ungkt),n a drug or other substance that serves a supplemental purpose in therapy.adjunctto BST or Eddie Eagle, but that the number of trainingsessions necessary for skill acquisition varies across children. One possible reason that some of the children in the BST and EddieEagle conditions failed to demonstrate the target skills during posttraining in-situ assessments is that only one training session wasimplemented. Previous research employing BST has been conducted over aminimum of two sessions and typically five sessions (Gatheridge et al.,2004; Himle, Miltenberger, Flessner, & Gatheridge, 2004; Himle,Miltenberger, Gatheridge, & Flessner, 2004). Because only onesession was used in this study, children in the BST and Eddie Eagleconditions practiced the target skills far fewer times than in previousstudies. Thus it is possible that behavioral rehearsal on only oneoccasion is not sufficient to produce generalization of the targetsafety skills. Future research should investigate the effectiveness ofmultiple training sessions of shorter duration as opposed to one sessionof longer duration in teaching firearm safety skills. Another reason why neither procedure was effective in teaching thetarget behaviors prior to the addition of in-situ training may have beenthe age of the children in the current study. Previous research usingBST to teach firearm injury prevention has focused on younger children.In these studies, the children appeared eager to participate and receivepraise from the researchers. The older children in the current studyseemed less interested in participating and seemed to care less aboutreceiving praise from the researchers. It is also interesting that, whenasked about the presence of the firearm during in-situ assessments, asubstantial number of children in the current study who did not performthe safety skills reported that they did not see the gun. It can only beassumed that a portion of these children were not being honest when theysaid they did not see the gun because the videotapes often showed thechildren looking in the direction of the gun that was laying in plainsight. This fact also suggests that the 8-and 9-year-old children may beless compliant with training than are children of younger ages. The age of the children in this study may have influenced theresults in another way. In the study with 4- and 5-years-olds (Himle,Miltenberger, Gatheridge, & Flessner, 2004) the control group had amean score of 0.8 and in the study with 6- and 7-year-olds (Gatheridgeet al., 2004), the control group had a mean score of 0.7 during thein-situ assessment. In the current study, 8- and 9-year-olds in thecontrol group had a mean score of 1.5 during the in-situ assessment.Because the control score was higher for the 8- and 9-year-olds in thecurrent study, the difference between BST and control was notsignificant. A number of children in both conditions also failed to perform tocriterion after one in-situ training session. Based on the effectivenessof in-situ training in Gatheridge et al. (2004), it is unclear why onesession was not sufficient for some of the children. These findings seemto suggest that, in order for firearm injury prevention programs to beeffective, it is necessary to incorporate both repeated and spacedpractice sessions with in-situ assessments and training (Himle,Miltenberger, Flessner, & Gatheridge, 2004; Miltenberger et al.,2004). Even though some of the children did not display the targetskills as early as anticipated, all of the children did eventually reachcriterion after receiving multiple training sessions involving BST orEddie Eagle and in-situ training. A further limitation of this study, similar to previous research,is the way in which the children were assessed (Gatheridge et al., 2004;Himle, Miltenberger, Flessner, & Gatheridge, 2004; Himle,Miltenberger, Gatheridge, & Flessner, 2004; Miltenberger et al.,2004). During the in-situ assessments, all of the children were assessedindividually. Thus, it remains to be seen whether the children woulddemonstrate similar behavior if they were assessed with another childpresent when they found the gun. However, it seems reasonable to firstdetermine the effectiveness of firearm injury prevention programs withindividual children before assessing the results of such programs withpairs or groups of children. Future research should address howeffective firearm injury prevention programs are when children areassessed under the influence of peer pressure. The study is also further limited by the fact that the childrenwere only assessed at their after-school program. Future research shouldlook at how well the safety skills taught in one setting generalize toother environments such as the playground or the child's home. In summary, it appears as though both BST and Eddie Eagle wereeffective training procedures when paired with in-situ training forteaching firearm injury prevention skills to 8- and 9-year-old children.Although children varied in the number of training sessions neededbefore acquiring the target skills, all of the children eventually wereable to perform to criterion with in-situ training. These findings lendsupport to the argument that young children are able to learn and applythe necessary safety skills in realistic situations after receivingtraining in realistic situations. Further research is necessary toevaluate factors that contribute to the success of firearm injuryprevention programs. Future research should investigate the parametersof BST and Eddie Eagle that will increase their effectiveness and theconditions under which in-situ training is necessary for teaching safetyskills. References American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Injury and PoisonPrevention. (2000). 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(2004).Nonfatal Adj. 1. nonfatal - not bringing death; "nonfatal heart attack"fatal - bringing death and fatal firearm-related injuries among children aged 14 yearsand younger: United States, 1993-2000. Pediatrics 113, 1686-1692. Farah, M. M., & Simon, H. K. (1999). Firearms in the home:Parental perceptions. Pediatrics, 104, 1059-1063. Gatheridge, B. J., Miltenberger, R. G., Huneke, D. F., Satterlund,M. J., Mattern, A. R., Johnson, B. M., & Flessner, C. A. (2004). Acomparison of two programs to teach firearm injury prevention skills to6 and 7 year-old children. Pediatrics, 114, 294-299. Grossman, D. C., Mang, K., & Rivara, F. P. (1995). Firearminjury prevention counseling prevention counselingAIDS Advising Pts on the risk of HIV infection and developing a plan to ↓that risk for them and their partners by pediatrics and family physicians.Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 149, 973-977. Grossman, D. C., Reay, D. T., & Barker, S. A. (1999).Self-inflicted self-in��flict��edadj.Inflicted or imposed on oneself: died of a self-inflicted gunshot wound.self-inflictedadj → infligido a s�� mismoand unintentional firearm injuries among children andadolescents: The source of the firearm. Archives of Pediatrics andAdolescent Medicine, 153, 875-882. Hardy, M. S. (2002). Teaching firearm safety to children: Failureof a program. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 23,71-76. Hardy, M. S., Armstrong, F. D., Martin, B. L., & Strawn, K. N.(1996). A firearm safety program for children: They just can't sayno. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 17, 216-221. Haught, K., Grossman, D., & Connell, F. (1995). Parents'attitudes toward firearm injury prevention counseling in urban pediatricclinics. Pediatrics, 96, 649-653. Himle, M. B., Miltenberger, R. G., Flessner, C. A., &Gatheridge, B. J. (2004). Teaching safety skills to children to preventgun-play. 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Retrieved June June:see month. 21,2002, from http://www.nraila.org/FactSheets.asp. National Rifle Association Safety and Education Division. (2001).Eddie eagle gun safety program. Fairfax Fairfax,city (1990 pop. 19,622), historic seat of Fairfax co., NE Va., a residential suburb of Washington, D.C.; inc. 1892, as a city 1961 (at which time it became independent and no longer included in a county). There is some light manufacturing. , VA: National Rifle Association. Olson, L. M., Christoffel, K. K., & O'Connor, K. G.(1997). Pediatricians' experience with and attitudes towardfirearms: results of a national survey. Archives of Pediatrics &Adolescent Medicine, 151, 352-359. Ordog, G. J., Wasserberger, J., Schatz Schatz is a German surname meaning "treasure" and may refer to: Aaron Schatz, NFL analyst and creator of the website Football Outsiders Albert Schatz, three people of this name , I., Owens-Collins, D.,English, K., Balasubramanian, S., & Schlater, T. (1988). 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Loaded guns in the home:Analysis of a national random survey of gun owners. Journal of theAmerican Medical Association, 267, 3033-3037. Wiley, C. C., & Casey, R. (1993). Family experiences,attitudes, and household safety practices regarding firearms. ClinicalPediatrics, 32, 71-76. Wintemute, G. J., Teret, S. P., Kraus, J. F., Wright, M. A., &Bradfield, G. (1987). When children shoot children: 88 unintended deathsin California California(kăl'ĭfôr`nyə), most populous state in the United States, located in the Far West; bordered by Oregon (N), Nevada and, across the Colorado River, Arizona (E), Mexico (S), and the Pacific Ocean (W). . Journal of the American Medical Association, 257,3107-3109. Zwerling, C., McMillan, D., Cook, P. J., Johnson, N., Kellermann,A. L., Lee, R. K., Loftin, C., Merchant, J. A., & Teret, S. (1993).Firearm injuries: Public health recommendations. American Journal ofPreventative Medicine, 9(1), 52-55. Pamela D. Kelso Raymond G. Miltenberger Marit A. Waters Kristin Egemo-Helm Angela G. Bagne North Dakota State University North Dakota State University,at Fargo; land-grant and state supported; coeducational; chartered and opened 1890 as North Dakota Agricultural College, achieved university status in 1960. Correspondence to Raymond G. Miltenberger, Ph.D., Director, AppliedBehavior Analysis Some of the information in this article may not be verified by . It should be checked for inaccuracies and modified to cite reliable sources.Applied behavior analysis (ABA) Masters Program, Department of Child and FamilyStudies, FMHI--University of South Florida; 13301 Bruce Bruce,Scottish royal family descended from an 11th-century Norman duke, Robert de Brus. He aided William I in his conquest of England (1066) and was given lands in England. B. Downs Blvd.MHC MHCmajor histocompatibility complex. MHCabbr.major histocompatibility complexMHCmajor histocompatibility complex. 2113A, Tampa, FL 33612; phone: (813) 974 5079e-mail:RMiltenberger@fmhi.usf.edu.Table 1 Percentage Participants Receiving Each of the Safety SkillsScores for Self-Report Assessment by Condition Self-Report Assessment Safety Skills ScoresCondition 0 1 2 3EE 0% 0% 0% 100%BST 0% 0% 22.22% 77.78%Control 11.11% 22.22% 55.56% 11.11%Table 2 Percentage of Participants Receiving Each of the Safety SkillsScores for Role-Play Assessment by Condition Role-Play Assessment Safety Skills ScoresCondition 0 1 2 3EE 0% 10% 10% 80%BST 0% 0% 0% 100%Control 33.33% 11.11% 0% 55.56%Table 3 Percentage of Participants Receiving Each of the Safety SkillsScores for In-Situ Assessment by Condition In-situ Assessment Safety Skills ScoreCondition 0 1 2 3EE 20% 0% 40% 40%BST 0% 33.33% 11.11% 55.56%Control 25% 25% 25% 25%Table 4 Percentage of Participants Receiving Each of the Safety SkillsScores for Second In-Situ Second In-situ Assessment Safety Skills ScoresCondition 0 1 2 3EE 0% 10% 10% 80%BST 0% 11.11% 22.22% 66.67%Control 25% 25% 25% 25%