The relationship among creative, critical thinking and thinking styles in Taiwan high school students.

The relationship among creative, critical thinking and thinking styles in Taiwan high school students. The study investigated the relationships among demographicvariables (class grades, school types, major field, parent'seducation level, etc.), psychological type, thinking style, criticalthinking, and creative thinking in senior high school students. Thestudy explored the extent to which students' inclinations andperceived competence to engage in creative thought, as well as theirability to think critically, can be predicted by one aspect of theirpersonality and their psychological preferences. 1119 male senior highschool students (grades 10 and 11) participated in the present study.The Thinking Styles Inventory, Chopsticks chopsticksNoun, pla pair of thin sticks of ivory, wood, or plastic, used for eating Chinese or other East Asian food [pidgin English, from Chinese]chopsticksnpl → palillos mplCreativity Test, Watson-GlaserCritical Thinking Appraisal and Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Myers-Briggs Type IndicatorDefinitionThe Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a widely-used personality inventory, or test, employed in vocational, educational, and psychotherapy settings to evaluate personality type in adolescents and adults age 14 wereadministered to the participants.The present study, anchored in Sternberg's theory of mentalself-government self-gov��ern��mentn.1. Political independence; autonomy.2. Popular or representative government; democracy.3. Self-control. and Jung's theory of personality types, serves tolend partial support to the evidence of the relationships of thinkingstyles to personality types. The present findings show the scales acrossthe TSI TSI Total Solar Irradiance (sum solar light in energy per unit of time)TSI Trading Standards Institute (UK)TSI Transportation Safety Institute (US DOT)and MBTI MBTI Myers-Briggs Type Indicator inventories are, in general, related in predictableways.**********It is widely recognized that the development of creative andcritical thinking can be beneficial for both the individual student andsociety (Sternberg Stern��berg, George Miller 1838-1915.American army physician who was US surgeon general (1893-1902) and organized (1900) the Yellow Fever Commission. & Lubart Liubartas (also Lubart, Lubko, baptized Dymitr; died ca. 1385) was the King of Halych-Volhynia, mostly in present-day Ukraine, Poland, and Belarus. He was the youngest son of Gediminas, Grand Duke of Lithuania. Ca. 1320 or ca. , 1995). However, a range of viewsregarding the relationship between the two kinds of thinking exists inthe literature. One of the most influential conceptions of criticalthinking is proposed by Robert Robert, Henry Martyn 1837-1923.American army engineer and parliamentary authority. He designed the defenses for Washington, D.C., during the Civil War and later wrote Robert's Rules of Order (1876).Noun 1. Ennis Ennis,city (1990 pop. 13,883), Ellis co., N Tex.; inc. 1872. It is a trading, financial, rail, and processing center in a fertile blackland area that produces cattle, cotton, and grain. Ennis also has light manufacturing. (1985). He defines criticalthinking as "reasonable reflective Refers to light hitting an opaque surface such as a printed page or mirror and bouncing back. See reflective media and reflective LCD. thinking that is focused ondeciding what to believe or do," and he details numerousproficiencies, tendencies, and dispositions that constitute suchreasonable reflective thinking. Creative thinking is associated withcertain personal characteristics, such as flexibility and fluency flu��ent?adj.1. a. Able to express oneself readily and effortlessly: a fluent speaker; fluent in three languages.b. . Someview the two kinds of thinking as being opposed to one another (Torch,1993), others acknowledge complementary functioning (Bleedorn, 1993;Menssen, 1993), and it is also argued that there is a problem inattempting to distinguish two separate kinds of thinking. It issuggested simply that the focus should be on good thinking in thecontext of the rules, methods and criteria of specific domains (Bailin,1993). For example, a number of researchers emphasize that criticalthinking involves not only logical, but also creative (intuitive)aspects (Meyers Meyers may refer to: PeopleAlbert Meyers (born 1932), American organic chemist, professor at Colorado State University Ann Meyers (born 1955), former American basketball player and current sportscaster , 1986; Brookfield Brookfield.1 Village (1990 pop. 18,876), Cook co., NE Ill., a residential suburb of Chicago; inc. 1893. The noted Chicago Zoological Park (Brookfield Zoo) is there.2 City (1990 pop. 35,184), Waukesha co., SE Wis. , 1987; Garrison, 1991; Paul Paul,1901–64, king of the Hellenes (1947–64), brother and successor of George II. He married (1938) Princess Frederika of Brunswick. During Paul's reign Greece followed a pro-Western policy, and the Cyprus question was temporarily resolved. , 1993).Given this controversy, the study investigated the relationship betweenthe two, namely whether a certain measurements of creativity areassociated with specific measurements of critical thinking.Sternberg and Lubart (1995) contend that thinking styles are one ofthe six major resources that give rise to creativity. Sternberg (1988a,1988b, 1994, 1997) proposed a theory of mental self-government thatdefines intellectual styles as an interface between intelligence andpersonality. Analogous analogous/anal��o��gous/ (ah-nal��ah-gus) resembling or similar in some respects, as in function or appearance, but not in origin or development. a��nal��o��gousadj. to the three branches of the U.S. government, thetheory postulates 13 thinking styles that fall along five dimensions ofmental self-government: function, form, level, scope, and leaning.Sternberg emphasized the five dimensions and 13 thinking styles, thoughnot exhaustive; represent important stylistic sty��lis��tic?adj.Of or relating to style, especially literary style.sty��listi��cal��ly adv. aspects of intellectualfunctioning. The first dimension is the function of the mentalself-government, including the legislative, executive and judicialthinking styles. The legislative function is concerned with formulatingideas and creating rules. The executive function is concerned withcarrying out plans and implementing rules initiated by others. Thejudicial function mainly involves comparing and evaluating ideas, rules,and procedures. The second dimension, the form of mentalself-government, concerns various styles of goal-setting andself-management Self-management means different things in different fields: In business, education, and psychology, self-management refers to methods, skills, and strategies by which individuals can effectively direct their own activities toward the achievement of objectives, and includes behaviors, such as prioritizing (Hierarchic hi��er��ar��chi��cal? or hi��er��ar��chic or hi��er��ar��chaladj.Of or relating to a hierarchy.hi ), pursuinggoals single-mindedly sin��gle-mind��edadj.1. Having one overriding purpose or goal: the single-minded pursuit of money.2. (Monarchic mon��arch?n.1. One who reigns over a state or territory, usually for life and by hereditary right, especially:a. A sole and absolute ruler.b. ), having multiple goal pursuits(Oligarchic ol��i��gar��chy?n. pl. ol��i��gar��chies1. a. Government by a few, especially by a small faction of persons or families.b. Those making up such a government.2. ), and taking a random approach to goals and problems(Anarchic an��ar��chic? or an��ar��chi��caladj.1. a. Of, like, or supporting anarchy: anarchic oratory.b. Likely to produce or result in anarchy.2. ). The third dimension is the level of mental self-government,which distinguishes between a preference for problems at a relativelyhigh level of abstraction The level of complexity by which a system is viewed. The higher the level, the less detail. The lower the level, the more detail. The highest level of abstraction is the single system itself. (Global) and a preference for problems thatdemand attention to details (Local). The fourth dimension is the scopeof mental self-government, including a preference for tasks that allowone to work alone, independent of others (Internal), versus a preferencefor tasks that allow social interaction and collaboration Working together on a project. See collaborative software. (External).Finally, the fifth dimension, leanings of mental self-governmentincludes the liberal and conservative thinking styles, with Liberalpreferring tasks, projects, or situations which involve unfamiliarityand ambiguity AmbiguityDelphic oracleultimate authority in ancient Greece; often speaks in ambiguous terms. [Gk. Hist.: Leach, 305]Iseult’s vowpledge to husband has double meaning. [Arth. and which require going beyond existing rules andprocedures, while Conservative preferring familiarity or situations andtasks that require adherence adherence/ad��her��ence/ (ad-her��ens) the act or condition of sticking to something.immune adherence to existing rules.A number of research studies have supported meaningfulrelationships between certain thinking styles and creativity (Jacobson Jacobson is a surname with several variants. Some people with this name include: Amy Jacobson Television reporter for WMAQ News in Chicago Bill Jacobson (born 1955), an American photographer Carl Robert Jakobson (1841-1882), Estonian writer and teacher ,1993; Kim Kimorphan wanders streets of India with lama. [Br. Lit.: Kim]See : Adventurousness & Michael Michael, archangelMichael(mī`kəl)[Heb.,=who is like God?], archangel prominent in Christian, Jewish, and Muslim traditions. In the Bible and early Jewish literature, Michael is one of the angels of God's presence. , 1995). For example, Kim and Michael (1995)identified a significant relationship between creativity measures andthinking style preferences. They found that students classified as usinga thinking style preference believed to be associated with right-braindominance were likely to achieve significantly higher scores oncreativity measures than those who were classified as showing a thinkingstyle preference hypothesized to be connected with either a left-brain left-brainedalso left-brainadj.1. Having the left brain dominant.2. Of or relating to the thought processes, such as logic and calculation, generally associated with the left brain.3. dominance or an integrated-brain dominance. In Zhang'scross-cultural cross-cul��tur��aladj.Comparing or dealing with two or more different cultures: a cross-cultural survey; cross-cultural influences on an artist's work. study of the relationships between thinking stylesassessed by the TSI and a number of student characteristics (1999), sheidentified that legislative and liberal styles are creativity-relevantstyles.Furthermore, the relationship of Sternberg's thinking styleswith other styles or personality types is also investigated. Forexample, Sternberg (1994) has reported some statistically significantrelationships among thinking styles to two other inventories based onmodels of personality types, these being the MBTI and Gregorc'sstyles. In Zhang's investigation of the relationship betweenSternberg's theory of thinking styles and Holland's theory ofpersonality types, she found that thinking styles and personality typesoverlap o��ver��lapn.1. A part or portion of a structure that extends or projects over another.2. The suturing of one layer of tissue above or under another layer to provide additional strength, often used in dental surgery.v. to a degree as predicated by the theory (2000). A negativerelationship is found between the artistic type and the executive, localand conservative thinking style, the social and enterprising en��ter��pris��ing?adj.Showing initiative and willingness to undertake new projects: The enterprising children opened a lemonade stand. scales arepositively related to the external style, whereas they are negativelycorrelated cor��re��late?v. cor��re��lat��ed, cor��re��lat��ing, cor��re��latesv.tr.1. To put or bring into causal, complementary, parallel, or reciprocal relation.2. with the internal thinking style. In addition, the social andenterprising scales are also positively related to the judicial thinkingstyle.Jung Jung, Carl Gustav 1875-1961.Swiss psychiatrist who founded analytical psychology and came up with the concepts of extraversion and introversion and the notion of the collective unconscious. (1971) proposed that, according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. their psychologicaldisposition and certain environmental demands, people develop differentnatural preferences regarding the way in which they relate to the world.These preferences may be of particular significance also forinvestigating people's willingness and ability to engage inself-directed self-di��rect��edadj.Directed or guided by oneself, especially as an independent agent: the self-directed study of a language.self learning and critical thinking. Jung distinguished betweentwo basic attitudes, introversion introversion:see extroversion and introversion. and extraversion extraversion/ex��tra��ver��sion/ (ek?strah-ver��zhun) extroversion. extraversionsee extroversion. , and four differentpsychological functions, thinking, feeling, sensing, and intuition intuition,in philosophy, way of knowing directly; immediate apprehension. The Greeks understood intuition to be the grasp of universal principles by the intelligence (nous), as distinguished from the fleeting impressions of the senses. . Fourdimensions of the MBTI that can also be considered learning preferences,with their associated contrasting preferences, are: (1) orientationtoward information and idea generation (extraversion and introversion For the software company, see .The trait of Extraversion-Introversion is a central dimension of human personality. Extraverts (sometimes called "extroverts") are gregarious, assertive, and generally seek out excitement. );(2) perception of information or ideas (sensing or intuition); (3)judgment or decision making (thinking and feeling); and (4) orientationto environment (judgment and perception).Research has established that specific preferences andcharacteristics are associated with MBTI types or other personalitytheories. For example, the study of Campbell Campbell, city, United StatesCampbell,city (1990 pop. 36,048), Santa Clara co., W Calif., in the fertile Santa Clara valley; founded 1885, inc. 1952. & Davis (1988)demonstrated that "introvert-sensing-thinking-judgment"learners tend to be analytical analytical, analyticpertaining to or emanating from analysis.analytical controlcontrol of confounding by analysis of the results of a trial or test. , fact-minded, dependable, reflective, andpractical. The key to developing a learner's ability to thinkcritically is found in the order of the learner's preferences forperception and judgment. Given this, teaching may be improved byemphasizing learners' dominant ways of perceiving and judging.Furthermore, Kreber (1998) presents a study which examined the extent towhich students' willingness and perceived capacity to engage inself-directed learning, and the ability to think critically, could beexplained by their psychological type. No significant relationship wasfound between psychological type and critical thinking.In the present study, researchers investigated whetherstudents' ability to think critically can be predicted by oneaspect of their personality: their psychological type (Jung, 1971). Aninvestigation is also undertaken into whether students' ability tothink critically or creatively could, in part, explain their preferencesfor thinking styles as suggested by the literature. To date, the complexrelationships between people's willingness and capacity to engagein critical thinking, their creative ability, and their psychologicaltype have not been empirically investigated.Given that thinking styles and psychological types may well playsuch an important part in creative and critical thinking, and that thecultivation cultivation,tilling or manipulation of the soil, done primarily to eliminate weeds that compete with crops for water and nutrients. Cultivation may be used in crusted soils to increase soil aeration and infiltration of water; it may also be used to move soil to or of creative/critical thinking is one of the importantmissions of higher education higher educationStudy beyond the level of secondary education. Institutions of higher education include not only colleges and universities but also professional schools in such fields as law, theology, medicine, business, music, and art. , the relationship among them needs to beinvestigated. With this background, the study investigated therelationships among demographic variables (class grades, school types,major field, parent' s education level, etc.), psychological type,thinking style, critical thinking, and creative thinking in senior highschool students. The study explored the extent to which students'inclinations and perceived competence to engage in creative thought, aswell as their ability to think critically, can be predicted by oneaspect of their personality and their psychological preferences. Aninvestigation was also undertaken to explore the relationships betweencreative and critical thinking.MethodsSampleDuring the 2000 school year, 1119 male senior high school students(grades 10 and 11) from 38 classes in 6 senior high schools in Taiwan An incomplete list of schools in Taiwan. National chainsHess Educational Organization Joy English School KOJEN English Language Schools TaipeiAffiliated Senior High School of National Taiwan Normal University volunteered to participate in the present study. Among theseparticipants, 586 students were from two military high schools whereeducational settings and systems are about the same as other senior highschools, except for boarding school, future military career preparation,and academic cultural differences. The average age of the participantswas about 18, ranging from 17 to 19 years old.InstrumentsThe Thinking Styles Inventory, Chopstick Creativity Test,Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal and MBTI were administered tothe participants.Chopstick Creativity TestChopstick Creativity Test was used as the measure of creativity inthe present study. The Unusual Functions of Wooden Chopsticks test,designed by Wu (1998), is a verbal creativity test from New Version ofCreativity Test. It is used to investigate students' creativethinking ability and aims to encourage participants to think creativelyabout how to use chopsticks for different functions besides as aneveryday utensil for lifting food. The participants were encouraged tofeel at ease and take the test under a non-exam atmosphere. There was a10 minutes time limit on the test. There are three measures of creativethinking, namely fluency, flexibility, and originality o��rig��i��nal��i��ty?n. pl. o��rig��i��nal��i��ties1. The quality of being original.2. The capacity to act or think independently.3. Something original.Noun 1. . The threemeasures can be summed to yield a total creativity score, the higher thescore indicating the higher creativity.To check on the accuracy of the scoring by two raters, a 76 sampleof 3 intact classes randomly chosen from 75 participants of 3 intactclasses. Correlations between the scores of the two raters for each ofthe three factors in the verbal creativity test of Fluency, Originality,and Flexibility were .99, .97, and .96, respectively.Thinking Styles InventoryThe Thinking Styles Inventory (TSI, Sternberg & Wagner, 1992)is based on Sternberg's theory of mental self-government. The TSIis a self-report test in which respondents In the context of marketing research, a representative sample drawn from a larger population of people from whom information is collected and used to develop or confirm marketing strategy. rate themselves on aseven-point scale, with 1 indicating that the statement does notdescribe them at all and 7 indicating that the statement characterizesthem extremely well. There are 65 items, each five falling into one ofthe 13 different style scales. The TSI is carried out using the Chinese Chinese,subfamily of the Sino-Tibetan family of languages (see Sino-Tibetan languages), which is also sometimes grouped with the Tai, or Thai, languages in a Sinitic subfamily of the Sino-Tibetan language stock. version adapted from Wong n. 1. A field. . Results indicated that the TSI proved to bereasonably reliable and valid for identifying the thinking styles ofthis sample of junior high students in Taiwan Taiwan(tī`wän`), Portuguese Formosa, officially Republic of China, island nation (2005 est. pop. 22,894,000), 13,885 sq mi (35,961 sq km), in the Pacific Ocean, separated from the mainland of S China by the 100-mi-wide (161-km) Taiwan , except for the lowerreliability estimates of Anarchic (Alpha=.47), Global (Alpha=.54), local(Alpha=.52). The observed internal consistency In statistics and research, internal consistency is a measure based on the correlations between different items on the same test (or the same subscale on a larger test). It measures whether several items that propose to measure the same general construct produce similar scores. reliability estimates ofthe 13 TSI scales are as follows: Legislative (Alpha=.83), Executive(Alpha=.55), Judicial (Alpha =.66), Hierarchic (Alpha =.70), Monarchic(Alpha=.65), Oligarchic (Alpha=.70), Anarchic (Alpha=.47), Global(Alpha=.54), local (Alpha=.52), Internal (Alpha=.76), External(Alpha=.76), Liberal (Alpha=.76), Conservative (Alpha=.76).Myers-Briggs Type IndicatorPsychological type was measured using the Myers-Briggs TypeInventory, Form G (Myers Myers can refer to: PeopleMyers, Alan, U.S. drummer (Devo) Myers, Alan, translator Myers, Amanda (born 1984) Green Party Candidate, Canadian Myers, B. R, critic (“A Reader's Manifesto”) Myers, Brett (born 1980), U.S. & McCaulley, 1985), a forced choiceself-report measure. The MBTI provides preference scores on fourdimensions, originally postulated pos��tu��late?tr.v. pos��tu��lat��ed, pos��tu��lat��ing, pos��tu��lates1. To make claim for; demand.2. To assume or assert the truth, reality, or necessity of, especially as a basis of an argument.3. by Jung: extroversion-introversion(E-I E-I Engineering and/or Installation ), sensation-intuition (S-N S-N Signal-to-Noise ratio (also seen as S/N or S/NR or SNR)S-N Stress vs. Number of Cycles to Failure Curve ), thinking-feeling(T-F T-F Time-Frequency ),judgment-perception (J-P). Combinations of scores on these fourtwo-part Adj. 1. two-part - involving two parts or elements; "a bipartite document"; "a two-way treaty"bipartite, two-waymany-sided, multilateral - having many parts or sides categories result in 16 possible personality types. Thus, anENTJ ENTJ Extroverted Intuitive Thinking Judging (Myers-Briggs personality type indicator)type is a person whose dominant modes are Extraversion, Intuition,Thinking, and Judging; an ISFP ISFP Introverted Sensing Feeling Perceiving (Myers-Briggs personality type indicator)ISFP International Society for Fall Protection (Bainbridge Island, Washington)ISFP Industrial Safety and Fire Protection type is a person whose predominant pre��dom��i��nant?adj.1. Having greatest ascendancy, importance, influence, authority, or force. See Synonyms at dominant.2. modesare Introversion, Sensing, Feeling, and Perceptive per��cep��tiveadj.1. Of or relating to perception.2. Having the ability to perceive.3. Keenly discerning.per . Previous researchhas demonstrated the reliability and validity of the MBTI (Myers &McCaulley, 1985).Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal (CTA An abbreviation for cum testamento annexo, Latin for "with the will annexed." )The Critical Thinking Appraisal (CTA) is based on Dressel &Mayhew's (1954) definition of critical thinking, and includes fivesubtests, each measuring a different aspect of critical thinking:inference (logic) inference - The logical process by which new facts are derived from known facts by the application of inference rules.See also symbolic inference, type inference. , recognition of assumptions, deduction deduction,in logic, form of inference such that the conclusion must be true if the premises are true. For example, if we know that all men have two legs and that John is a man, it is then logical to deduce that John has two legs. , interpretation, andevaluation. The test is frequently used to measure gains in criticalthinking abilities resulting from instruction, to predict success inprograms in which the ability to think critically is important, and toexplore and determine relationships between critical thinking abilitiesand other abilities or traits. The first scale tested students'ability to 'recognize unstated assumptions Unstated assumption is a type of propaganda message which foregoes explicitly communicating the propaganda's purpose and instead states ideas derived from it. This technique is used when a propaganda's main idea lacks credibility, and thus when mentioned directly will result in the or presuppositions ingiven statements or premises'; the second scale assessed theirability to 'weigh evidence and decide if generalizations orconclusions based on the given data are warranted'; and the thirdtested their ability to 'distinguish between arguments that arestrong and relevant and those that are weak and irrelevant for aparticular question at issue.' The forth scale.... The fifthscale.... (Watson & Glaser, 1980, p. 2). Each scale has a possibletotal score of 16.Results and DiscussionTSI Scale IntercorrelationsIntercorrelations for the 13 TSI scales are performed. The absolutevalues of these scale correlations ranged from .034 to .70. Essentially,some correlations were in the direction predicted by the theory ofmental self-government. Examples are Legislative versus Liberal (r=.70),Executive versus Conservative (r=.64), Judicial versus Hierarchical A structure made up of different levels like a company organization chart. The higher levels have control or precedence over the lower levels. Hierarchical structures are a one-to-many relationship; each item having one or more items below it. (r=.50), which were significant at the .001 level. However, some of thesignificant/insignificant correlations were in the direction that wasnot predicted by the theory of mental self-government. For example, thecorrelation between Monarchic and Hierarchical was 0.52 (p < .001).This result is consistent with that obtained in the study conducted byZhang & Sachs (1997), Zhang (1999). In addition, Conservative versusLiberal (r=-.04), and Internal versus External (r=.06) were not in thedirection predicted by the theory of mental self-government. Whetherthat was due to cultural differences warrants further study.Pearson correlation between Creative and CriticalThinkingThe finding shows no correlation between creative and criticalthinking, except a weak positive correlation Noun 1. positive correlation - a correlation in which large values of one variable are associated with large values of the other and small with small; the correlation coefficient is between 0 and +1direct correlation (rs =.070~.079, ps<.05)between interpretation and creative scores of fluency, flexibility,originality and total scores. This appears that two kinds of creativeand critical constructs might be distinct. Whether this is due to themeasurement instruments employed in the study needs furtherinvestigation.Pearson correlation among Thinking Styles and Creative ThinkingRegarding the relationships between creative thinking and thinkingstyles, Pearson correlation analysis shows that liberal, legislative,judicial, hierarchical, anarchic, external thinking, local, liberal, andglobal have significant correlation with creative thinking. The resultssupport Sternberg and Lubart (1995) that legislative and liberal stylesare associated with using creative strategies as well as Zhang'scross-cultural studies Cross-cultural comparisons take several forms. One is comparison of case studies, another is controlled comparison among variants of a common derivation, and a third is comparison within a sample of cases. (1999). Furthermore, it also shows strongassociation between liberal, anarchic and external thinking andcreativity, which could be explained by the style'scharacteristics. Appearing to capture the essence of creative thinking,Liberal prefers unfamiliar tasks beyond existing rules and procedures,Anarchic tends to take a random approach to goals and problems, Externalprefers tasks that allow social interaction and collaboration.Pearson correlation among Thinking Styles and CriticalThinkingRegarding the relationships between critical thinking and thinkingstyles, the study found that critical thinking has negative correlation Noun 1. negative correlation - a correlation in which large values of one variable are associated with small values of the other; the correlation coefficient is between 0 and -1indirect correlation respectively with local (r=-0.10, p < 0.01) and Conservative thinking(r=-0.08, p < 0.05), positive correlation with Legistrative (r=. 10,p < 0.01), Judicial (r=0.11, p < 0.001), Monarchic (r=0.11, p <0.001), Oligarchic (r=0.08, p < 0.05), Internal (r=0.08, p <0.05), External (r=0.11, p < 0.001); while no correlation withHierarchical, Anarchic and Liberal thinking.Pearson correlation among Psychological Types and Thinking StylesWith respect to the relationship between thinking styles andpsychological types, 36 of 104 correlation coefficients Correlation CoefficientA measure that determines the degree to which two variable's movements are associated.The correlation coefficient is calculated as: werestatistically positively significant, 40 of 104 negatively significant.It was higher than the 30 of 128 statistically significant correlationcoefficients identified in Sternberg (1994). The study found thatPearson correlation analysis shows that external types have significantpositive correlation with legislative, judicial, hierarchical,oligarchic, anarchic, global, external, and liberal, and a negativerelationship with executive, internal and conservative. Internal typeshave significant negative correlation with legislative, judicial,hierarchical, oligarchic, anarchic, global, external, and liberal, and apositive relationship with executive, internal, and conservative.Intuitive types have significant positive correlation withlegislative, judicial, anarchic, global, internal, external, andliberal, and a negative relationship with executive, and conservative.Sensing types have significant negative correlation with legislative,judicial, monarchic, anarchic, global, internal, external, and liberal,and a positive relationship with executive, and conservative. Intuitivetypes have significant positive correlation with legislative, judicial,anarchic, global, internal, external, and liberal, and a negativerelationship with executive, and conservative.Thinking types have significant positive correlation withlegislative, executive, judicial, monarchic, hierarchical, local,internal, and liberal, and a negative relationship with oligarchic.Feeling types have significant negative correlation with legislative,executive, judicial, monarchic, hierarchical, local, internal, andliberal, and a positive relationship with oligarchic.Judging types have significant positive correlation with monarchic,hierarchical, oligarchic, local, and conservative, and a negativerelationship with legislative, anarchic, internal and liberal.Perceiving types have significant negative correlation with executive,monarchic, hierarchical, oligarchic, local, and conservative, and apositive relationship with legislative, anarchic, internal, and liberal.The above findings show two constructs from the two theories, andalthough the correlations are not very strong, most of them are highlysignificant. Essentially, these correlations were in the directionpredicted by the theory of mental self-government. Examples are Externaltype versus External style, External type versus Internal style,Internal type versus External style, Sensing type versus Conservativestyle, Sensing type versus Global style, Judging type versusHierarchical style and Conservative style. The finding indicate that thegenesis of thinking styles may partially be explained by the nature ofthe relationship between thinking styles and personality types, however,the findings need further cross-validation.Mean Differences in Critical Thinking on Background VariablesThe results of the Hotelling's T2 procedure indicated that theparticipants' critical thinking was significantly different interms of the following background variables: grade level, type of schoolattended, grades, and parents' educational level (p < .05), withthe exception of birth order.For exmple, Hotelling's T2 test revealed significantdifferences between grade levels (Hotelling's T2= 18.02, p<.01),father's and mother's educational level, as well as grades, onthe The Critical Thinking Appraisal (CTA) (See Table #). Eleventh grade This article or section deals primarily with the United States and Canada and does not represent a worldwide view of the subject.Please [ improve this article] or discuss the issue on the talk page. students performed better than 10th grade students on inference (F=4.47,p<.05), deduction (F=15.22, p<.01), and the whole (F=9.36,p<.001). It revealed that parents' higher educational levels andschool grades (Wilks' _=.98, p<.001) tend to have highercritical thinking abilities.Hotelling's T2 test revealed significant differences betweenschool types (Military vs. General high school) on The Critical ThinkingAppraisal (CTA) (Hotelling's T2=191.86, p<.001). General highschool students outperformed military high school students on whole, andfive, subscales of CTA, namely, inference (F=104.44, p<.001),recognition of assumptions (F=15.07, p<.001), deduction (F=74.82,p<.001), interpretation (F=96.68, p<.001), evaluation (F=28.09,p<.001), and whole scale (F=167.63, p<.001). In addition, studentswhose grades are above 1/3 in a class outperform OutperformAn analyst recommendation meaning a stock is expected to do slightly better than the market return.Notes:Exact definitions vary by brokerage, but in general this rating is better than neutral and worse than buy or strong buy. those of under 1/3 ininference (F=5.31, p<.01), recognition of assumptions (F=3.67,p<.05), evaluation (F=3.69, p<.05).Given the significantly lower scores reported by the Military highschool students (when compared to the scores provided by the Generalhigh school students) it would appear that Military high school studentsmight have difficulty with reading and comprehending the problemspresented in the WGCTA, or it might be because of their lowereducational level compared with General students. This may provide someclues to instructors and researchers in that the Military high schoolstudents need assistance in developing critical thinking skills.Mean Differences in Creative Thinking on Background VariablesWith respect to creativity measures, the study revealed nosigificance in terms of school type (Hotelling's T2=6.3). However,when ANOVA anovasee analysis of variance.ANOVAAnalysis of variance, see there procedures were conducted individully, it was found thatMilitary school outperformed General school on the original subscale(F=4.66, p<.05). The findings also show insignificant differences inthe creative thinking scores with the following background variables:the grade levels, parents' educational level, and socioecomicstatus, with the exception of school grades (Wilks' _=.99,p<.05). Students whose grades were above 1/3 in a class outperformedthose of the middle 1/3 in original subscale (F=4.31, p < .05).Mean Differences in Thinking Styles on Background VariablesOn the basis of Sternberg's notion (1988, 1997) that stylesare in part socialized so��cial��ize?v. so��cial��ized, so��cial��iz��ing, so��cial��iz��esv.tr.1. To place under government or group ownership or control.2. To make fit for companionship with others; make sociable. , a range of socialization socialization/so��cial��iza��tion/ (so?shal-i-za��shun) the process by which society integrates the individual and the individual learns to behave in socially acceptable ways. so��cial��i��za��tionn. variables were examinedagainst the mean differences in participants' thinking styles.Results of these analyses showed that participants were notsignificantly different in any of the 13 thinking styles on the basis ofsuch socialization variables as birth order, and parent's job.Significant differences were found with high, mid or low educationallevel, of fathers, in Legistrative (F=3.71, p<.001), Judicial(F=3.22,p<.01), Monarchic (F=2.21,p<.05), Hierarchical (F=2.17,p<.05), Global (F=5.12, p<.001), External (F=2.97, p<.01), andLiberal (F=2.63, p<.05) thinking styles.Psychological Types, Critical Thinking and Creative ThinkingWith respect to the relationship between MBTI and criticalthinking, Hotelling's T2 test reveals significant differencesbetween Extrovert/introvert (Hotelling's T2=13.77, p<.05),Sensing/Intuition (Hotelling's T2=23.32, p<.001) and criticalmeasures. While Introvert introvert/in��tro��vert/ (in��tro-vert)1. a person whose interest is turned inward to the self.2. to turn one's interest inward to the self.3. a structure that can be turned or drawn inwards. types outperform Extrovert extrovert/ex��tro��vert/ (eks��tro-vert)1. a person whose interest is turned outward.2. to turn one's interest outward to the external world. types in inference(F=9.19, p < .01), recognition of assumptions (F=5.09, p < .05)and interpretation (F=4.94, p < .05). Intuition has significantlyhigher inference (F=13.91, p < .001), and deduction (F_8.62, p <.001) and interpretation F_11.53, p < .01) more than sensing. Thefindings lent partial support to Jung's description of theintrovert preference for inner worlds and ideas, and intuitivepreferences for innovative ideas.There is a growing body of literature in education, whichemphasizes that critical thinking involves not only logical, but alsocreative (intuitive) and even emotive e��mo��tive?adj.1. Of or relating to emotion: the emotive aspect of symbols.2. Characterized by, expressing, or exciting emotion: aspects (Meyers, 1986; Brookfield,1987; Garrison, 1991; Paul, 1993). The results of the intuitive typewith higher inference, deduction and interpretation appear partially tovalidate To prove something to be sound or logical. Also to certify conformance to a standard. Contrast with "verify," which means to prove something to be correct.For example, data entry validity checking determines whether the data make sense (numbers fall within a range, numeric data Jung's theoretical description of the characteristics ofSN preference and the role intuition plays in relation to one'swillingness and perceived capacity to engage in critical thinking.Further study might confirm the role that both intuitive and logicalreasoning The three methods for logical reasoning, deduction, induction and abduction can be explained in the following way: [1]Given preconditions α, postconditions β and the rule R1: α ∴ β (α therefore β). play in the process of critical reflection.Regarding the relationship between MBTI and creative thinking,Hotelling's T2 test only reveals significant differences inSensing/Intuition (Hotelling's T2=23.32, p<.001), with intuitionoutperforming sensing in flexibility (F=5.80, p < .05). However, whenindividual ANOVA were employed, the Extrovert type outperformed theIntrovert type in fluency, flexibility, and originality. As Wheatley,Anthony and Maddix (1991) propose, the intuitive way of perceivingthings, the extrovert orientation to life, and making decisions based onfeelings will make a perceptive individual more positively related tothe level of imagination and creativity in the strategic process ofmanagement. The findings of intuition outperforming sensing inflexibility partially support Wheatley et al. speculation.Thinking Styles and Psychological TypesWith respect to the relationship between thinking styles andpsychological types, significant differences were revealed betweenExtrovert/introvert (Hotelling's T2= 192.15, p<.001),Sensing/Intuition (Hotelling's T2=163.31, p<.001),Thinking/Feeling (Hotelling's T2=105.17, p<.001), Judging/Perceiving (Hotelling's T2= 135.17, p< .001) and thinking types.While Extrovert types outperform introvert types in Legistrative(F=15.96, p < .01), Judicial (F=40.02, p < .001), Hierarchical(F=22.65, p < .001), Oligarchic (F=11.16, p < .01), Anarchic(F=33.57, p < .001), Global (F=16.99, p < .001), External(F=129.22, p < .001) and Liberal (F=42.24, p < .001).Intuition has significantly higher scores than Sensing in thefollowing thinking types: Legistrative (F=40.35, p < .001), Judicial(F=35.67, p < .001), Anarchic (F=35.67, p < .01), Global (F=4.94,p < .05), Internal (F=8.52, p < .01), External (F=9.46, p <.01), and Liberal (F=65.87, p < .001), while Sensing had higherscores in Executive and Conservative thinking (F=47.67, 69.04, p s<.001). This finding appears to correspond to MBTI and Sternberg'stheory. According to MBTI, Intuitive types process incoming perceptual per��cep��tu��aladj.Of, based on, or involving perception. stimuli more deeply and prefer to work with abstract ideas, inferredmeanings and hidden possibilities, therefore, its strong relationshipwith Legistrative, Anarchic, Global, Internal, External, and Liberallend support to their theoretical speculations Speculations is an online resource for writers who wish to break into or increase their presence within the science fiction, fantasy, or other speculative fiction subgenres. Speculations has been a Hugo Award nominee seven times. The website is maintained by Kent Brewster. . Sensing type individualsfocus on perceptual impressions they receive from the environment andprefer to deal with concrete details and dislike working withill-structured problems and uncertain situations. The finding thatSensing significantly related to Executive and Conservativesubstantiated both MBTI and Sternberg's theory. Conservative'spreferred familiar tasks that required adherence to existing rules andExecutive's were concerned with carrying out plans initiated byothers.Thinking has significantly higher scores than Feeling in thefollowing thinking types: Legistrative (F=5.37, p < .05), Executive(F=5.40, p < .05), Judicial (F=9.84, p < .01), Monarchic (F=12.82,p < .001), hierarchical (F=43.31, p < .001), Local (F=16.39, p< .001), Internal (F=16.12, p < .001), Liberal (F=5.33, p <.05), while the Feeling type had higher scores in Oligarchic thinking(F=9.76, p < .01). Feeling types tend to be very attuned at��tune?tr.v. at��tuned, at��tun��ing, at��tunes1. To bring into a harmonious or responsive relationship: an industry that is not attuned to market demands.2. to their ownfeelings and the feelings of others. They base their decisions on whatis important to themselves and others. Therefore, it might make sensefor Feeling to be significantly related to Oligarchic thinking, asOligarchic's having multiple pursuits to consider. Thinking types,on the other hand, base their decisions on an objective, impersonal im��per��son��al?adj.1. Lacking personality; not being a person: an impersonal force.2. a. Showing no emotion or personality: an aloof, impersonal manner. , andlogical analysis of a situation, matching well with the characteristicsof Judicial, hierarchical, Executive.Judging had significantly higher scores than Perceiving in thefollowing thinking styles: Executive (F=130.33, p < .001), Monarchic(F=22.88, p < .001), hierarchical (F=69.55, p < .001), Local(F=25.51, p < .001), and Conservative thinking (F=135.17, p <.001), whereas Perceiving had higher scores in Legistrative (F=5.60, p< .05) and Liberal thinking styles (F=10.86, p < .01). Thesefindings support that on the one hand, Judgers prefer to work in alinear, orderly orderly/or��der��ly/ (or��der-le) an attendant in a hospital who works under the direction of a nurse. or��der��lyn.An attendant in a hospital. method, seek closure, tend to be organized, and wantthings settled (typical characteristics of Executive, hierarchical,Monarchic); and on the other hand, Perceiving individuals prefer aflexible, spontaneous spontaneous/spon��ta��ne��ous/ (spon-ta��ne-us)1. voluntary; instinctive.2. occurring without external influence.spontaneoushaving no apparent external cause. life. They prefer to keep their options open andare often viewed as spontaneous.Summary and ConclusionThe present study resulted in several major findings. First, thestudy examined the relationship between thinking styles as defined bythe Sternberg theory of mental self-government and the MBTI personalitytypes as defined by Jungian Jung��i��anadj.1. Relating to or described by Carl Gustav Jung.2. Maintaining Jung's psychological theories. theory. Sternberg (1994) has reported somestatistically significant relation ships between thinking styles to MBTIpersonality types. The present study, anchored in Sternberg'stheory of mental self-government and Jung's theory of personalitytypes, serves to lend partial support to the evidence of therelationships of thinking styles to personality types. It was found thatthe two constructs from the two theories strongly related as significantrelationships were identified between particular thinking styles andcertain personality traits. This indicates that the genesis of thinkingstyles may partially be explained by the nature of the relationshipbetween thinking styles and personality types.Secondly, the study investigates the relationship between criticaland creative thinking, whether a certain component of creativitymeasurements (fluency, flexibility, and originality) are associate witha certain component of critical measurements (inference, recognition ofassumptions, deduction, interpretation, and evaluation. A growing bodyof literature emphasizing critical thinking involves not only logical,but also creative (intuitive) aspects. The findings revealed that nocorrelation between creative and critical thinking, except for a weakpositive correlation between interpretation and creative scores offluency, flexibility, originality and total scores. Whether critical andcreative thinking are distinct or complementary constructs, remain to beinvestigated further.Thirdly, the study explores the extent to which psychological typesmay predict people's capacity to engage in creative and criticalthinking. The findings reveal that liberal, legislative, judicial,hierarchical, monarchic, anarchic, global, local, liberal, and externalthinking have significant correlation with creative thinking. Criticalthinking has negative correlation respectively with oligarchic,internal, conservative, executive thinking. Inconsistent with Kreber(1998), no significant relationship between psychological types andcritical thinking was found, although the study found a significantrelationship between psychological types and critical/creative thinking.While introverted in��tro��vert��edadj.Marked by interest in or preoccupation with oneself or one's own thoughts as opposed to others or the environment. types outperformed extroverted ex��tro��vert��edalso ex��tra��vert��ed ?adj.Marked by interest in and behavior directed toward others or the environment as opposed to or to the exclusion of self; gregarious or outgoing: types in inference,recognition of assumptions and interpretation. Intuitive showedsignificantly higher inference, deduction, and interpretation, as wellas flexibility, than sensing.The present findings show the scales across the TSI and MBTIinventories are, in general, related in predictable ways. It alsodemonstrates preference for a particular style of thinking andpersonality type might be potentially predictive of the manifestation man��i��fes��ta��tionn.An indication of the existence, reality, or presence of something, especially an illness.manifestation(man´ifestā´sh ofcreative and critical endeavor to some extent. The results of this studyshed light on these relationships and suggest some interestingconsiderations for teaching practice in education. Further research withdifferent samples and different instruments to measure creative/criticalthinking, personality types, or thinking styles, is needed to validatethe results obtained in this study. Furthermore, the use of aninferential in��fer��en��tial?adj.1. Of, relating to, or involving inference.2. Derived or capable of being derived by inference.in rather than a correlational design is recommended in futurestudies in order to test the results obtained here.Table 1Intercorrelations of the 15 Subscales of the Thinking Styles Inventoryand the MBTI Inventory (N = 1119) LEG EXE JUD MON HIEE .094 -.070 .168 .033 .102p-value .003 .025 .000 .288 .001I -.110 .078 -.188 -.044 -.122p-value .000 .013 .000 .162 .000S -.243 .272 -.271 -.093 -.010p-value .000 .000 .000 .003 .749N .237 -.269 .244 .056 -.021p-value .000 .000 .000 .074 .495T .091 .103 .147 .112 .179p-value .004 .001 .000 .000 .000F -.070 -.116 -.153 -.123 -.210p-value .025 .000 .000 .000 .000J -.131 .396 -.003 .175 .340p-value .000 .000 .913 .000 .000P .138 -.385 .032 -.153 -.271p-value .000 .000 .305 .000 .000 OLI ANA GLO LOC INTE .117 .151 .100 .004 -.117p-value .000 .000 .001 .902 .000I -.143 -.159 -.095 -.027 .127p-value .000 .000 .003 .386 .000S -.046 -.114 -.093 -.003 -.118p-value .140 .000 .003 .929 .000N .037 .093 .141 -.056 .130p-value .239 .003 .000 .073 .000T -.096 .023 .032 .119 .157p-value -.002 .466 .311 .000 .000F .072 -.009 -.021 -.147 -.125p-value .021 .782 .499 .000 .000J .107 -.083 -.042 .205 -.074p-value .001 .008 .180 .000 .018P -.109 .085 .045 -.180 .076p-value .000 .006 .152 .000 .016 EXT LIB CONE .347 .202 -.119p-value .000 .000 .000I -.378 -.210 .110p-value .000 .000 .000S -.192 -.345 .323p-value .000 .000 .000N .147 .320 -.337p-value .000 .000 .000T -.035 .102 .045p-value .258 .001 .148F -.002 -.098 -.045p-value .950 .002 .153J .013 -.155 .414p-value .679 .000 .000P -.011 .160 -.397p-value .721 .000 .000Table 2Summary of Findings Between Critical Measures and Demographic VariablesSubscale Wilks' [lambda] [??] inferenceVariable Hotelling's [T.sup.2]School Type Hotelling's [T.sup.2] 104.44 *** = 191.86 *** general > militaryClass Grades Hotelling's [T.sup.2] 4.47 * = 18.02 ** 11>10Major Field Wilks' [lambda] =.88 *** 29.14 *** Natural > Social Science Natural > othersChildren Wilks' [lambda] =.98 1.19RankingGrades Wilks' [lambda] =.97 ** 5.31 ** 1/3>2/3Father's Wilks' [lambda] =.91 *** 7.79 ***education college >level elementary Univ. > elementary Univ. > high schoolMother's Wilks' [lambda] =.95 * 5.59 ***education college >level elementary Univ. > elementaryFather's job Wilks' [lambda] =.95 3.12 ** Education > AgricultureMother's job Wilks' [lambda] =.93 ** 4.25 *** Education > AgricultureFather's Hotelling's [T.sup.2] =4.97 .21existenceMother's Hotelling's [T.sup.2] =7.46 4.66 *existenceSubscale recognition of deductionVariable assumptionsSchool Type 15.07 *** 74.82 *** general > military general > militaryClass Grades 2.88 15.22 *** 11>10 11>10Major Field 13.28 *** 40.20 *** Natural > Social Natural > Science Social Science Natural > others Natural > othersChildren .73 .72RankingGrades 3.67 * 2.16 1/3>3/3Father's 2.49 * 4.58 ***education Univ. >level elementary Univ. > high schoolMother's .88 2.47 *educationlevelFather's job 1.63 1.96Mother's job 2.03 * 1.64Father's .49 .22existenceMother's .31 2.24existenceSubscale interpretation evaluationVariableSchool Type 96.68 *** 28.09 *** general > general > military militaryClass Grades 2.04 1.69 11>10 11>10Major Field 21.82 7.91 *** Natural > National > Social Science undecided Natural > undecidedChildren 1.50 .98RankingGrades .95 3.69 *Father's 7.89 3.46 **education college > college >level elementary junior high Univ. > elementary Univ. > high schoolMother's 3.83 ** .89education Univ. > college >level elementary elementary Univ. > elementary, junior highFather's job 1.68 .91Mother's job 2.79 ** 2.35 * Education > AgricultureFather's 2.81 1.01existenceMother's .01 .03existenceSubscale Total scoreVariableSchool Type 167.63 *** general > militaryClass Grades 9.36 ** 11>10Major Field 53.02 *** Natural > Social Science Natural > othersChildren 1.50RankingGrades 3.01Father's 11.75 ***education college >level elementary junior high Univ. > elementary Univ. > high schoolMother's 5.85 ***educationlevelFather's job 3.58 ** Education > Agriculture, BusinessMother's job 5.25 *** Education > Agriculture, Business and othersFather's 1.17existenceMother's 1.25existenceTable 3Summar of Findings Between Creative Measures and Demographic VariablesSubscale Wilks' [lambda] /Variable Hotelling's [T.sup.2]School Type Hotelling's [T.sup.2]=62.94Class Grades Hotelling's [T.sup.2]=41.96Major Field Wilks' [lambda] =.99Birth Ranking Wilks' [lambda] =.99Grades Wilks' [lambda] =.99 *Father's education Wilks' [lambda] =.97levelMother's education Wilks' [lambda] =.98levelFather's job Wilks' [lambda] =.97Mother's job Wilks' [lambda] =.98Father's existence Hotelling's [T.sup.2]=8.22Mother's existence Hotelling's [T.sup.2]=24.69Subscale Fluency FlexibilityVariableSchool Type 1.77 0.58Class Grades .90 2.08Major Field 1.91 3.56 * natural science> undecidedBirth Ranking 1.15 1.22Grades 2.00 2.71Father's education 2.12 * 1.53levelMother's education 1.69 1.53levelFather's job 1.54 1.75Mother's job 2.41 * 1.76Father's existence .07 .47Mother's existence 1.70 0.82Subscale Originality Creativity totalVariableSchool Type 4.66 * 2.88 military> generalClass Grades 1.85 1.65Major Field 1.96 2.36Birth Ranking .82 1.10Grades 4.31 * 3.32 * 1/3>2/3 1/3>2/3Father's education 2.49 * 2.29 *levelMother's education 2.12 * 2.04levelFather's job 1.18 1.42Mother's job 2.17 * 2.38 *Father's existence .06 .12Mother's existence .67 1.17Table 4Summary of Relationship Between Creative, Critical measures andPsychological Type EI SN TF JPFluency 4.45 * (E>I) .71 .40 .88Flexibility 5.71 5.80 * (N>S) 1.43 .35Originality 4.87 .77 .00 .23Creativity total 6.29 11.54 * .20 2.10Inference 9.19 ** (I>E) 13.91 *** (N>S) 2.72 .21Recognition Of 5.09 * (I>E) .03 0.36 .41AssumptionsDeduction 2.52 8.62 ** (N>S) .16 .09Interpretation 4.94 * (I>E) 11.53 ** (N>S) .66 .61Evaluation 2.39 2.83 1.28 .89Total score 13.77 * 23.32 *** 6.36 3.18Table 5Summary of Relationship Between Psychological Type/Thinking Stylesand Creative/Critical Thinking EI SNFluency 4.45 * (E>I) .71Flexibility 5.71 * (E>I) 5.80 * (N>S)Originality 4.87 * (E>I) .77Creativity total 6.29 11.54 *Inference 9.19 ** (I>E) 13.91 *** (N>S)Recognition Of 5.09 * (I>E) .03AssumptionsDeduction 2.52 8.62 ** (N>S)Interpretation 4.94 * (I>E) 11.53 ** (N>S)Evaluation 2.39 2.83Critical Total score 13.77 * 23.32 ***Leg 15.96 *** (E>I) 40.35 *** (N>S)Exe .96 47.67 *** (S>N)Jud 40.02 *** (E>I) 35.67 *** (N>S)Mon 3.08 1.94Hie 22.65 *** (E>I) .05Oli 11.16 ** (E>I) .00Ana 33.57 *** (E>I) 8.01 ** (N>S)Glo 17.99 *** (E>I) 4.94 * (N>S)Loc 2.18 .00Int 2.96 8.52 ** (N>S)Ext 129.22 *** (E>I)) 9.46 ** (N>S)Lib 42.24 *** (E>I) 65.87 *** (N>S)Con 2.08 69.04 *** (S>N)Thinking styles 192.15 *** 163.31 *** TF JPFluency .40 .88Flexibility 1.43 .35Originality .00 .23Creativity total .20 2.10Inference 2.72 .21Recognition Of 0.36 .41AssumptionsDeduction .16 .09Interpretation .66 .61Evaluation 1.28 .89Critical Total score 6.36 3.18Leg 5.37 * (T>F) 5.60 * (P>J)Exe 5.40 * (T>F) 133.03 *** (J>P)Jud 9.84 ** (T>F) .03Mon 12.82 *** (T>F) 22.88 *** (J>P)Hie 43.41 *** (T>F) 69.55 *** (J>P)Oli 9.76 ** (F>T) 4.93 *Ana .28 1.41Glo .37 .02Loc 16.39 *** (T>F) 25.51 *** (J>P)Int 16.12 *** (T>F) 1.18Ext .02 .25Lib 5.33 * (T>F) 10.86 ** (P>J)Con .01 135.17 *** (J>P)Thinking styles 105.17 *** 275.84 ***ReferencesBailin, S. 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Ching For the Chinese surname Ching 程, see .For the Chinese dynasty, see .The ching (Thai: ฉิ่ง; sometimes romanized as chhing) are small bowl-shaped finger cymbals of thick and heavy bronze, with a broad rim commonly used in Cambodia and Yang yang(yang) [Chinese] in Chinese philosophy, the active, positive, masculine principle that is complementary to yin; see yin, under principle. and Wen Chaun Lin, Graduate Institute of Education,National Sun Yat-Sen University The National Sun Yat-sen University (Traditional Chinese: 國立中山大學; Simplified Chinese: 国立中山大学.Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr.Shu Ching Yang, Graduate School of Education, National Sun Yat-senUniversity, 70 Lien-hai Rd. Kaohsiung, Taiwan, R.O.C. 80424; Email:shyang@mail.nsysu.edu.tw