The politics of breast cancer research.

The politics of breast cancer research. ABSTRACT More than two dozen studies suggest the possibility that theabortion of a first pregnancy may result in an increased risk ofdeveloping breast cancer. Connection theorists who argue this positionexplain the phenomena as resulting from the hormonal changes andcarcinogenic carcinogenichaving a capacity for carcinogenesis. responses that occur when an established pregnancy issummarily terminated. Epidemiological studies An Epidemiological study is a statistical study on human populations, which attempts to link human health effects to a specified cause. provide some support forthe hypothesis. An upsurge in breast cancer in women, especiallypre-menopausal women, render explanations that derive from sharpexpansions in certain conditions--such as the concurrent upsurge inabortions--plausible. If the evidence continues to mount, the questionarises as to whether there are predictive models that might suggest thereactional behavior of abortion providers a`bor´tion pro`vid´ern. 1. same as abortionist. . Biological Explanation And Suggestive Studies In 1989, Dr. Nancy Krieger published a paper that argued theremight be a possible link between the abortion of a first pregnancy andthe incidence of breast cancer. In the journal Breast Cancer Researchand Treatment, she wrote: According to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. this hypothesis, an early first full-term pregnancywould provide the greatest protection against breast cancer bydrastically reducing, early on, the presence of undifferentiated undifferentiated/un��dif��fer��en��ti��at��ed/ (un-dif?er-en��she-at-ed) anaplastic. un��dif��fer��en��ti��at��edadj.Having no special structure or function; primitive; embryonic. andhence vulnerable breast cells, thereby decreasing the risk of subsequenttransformation ... Other types of pregnancies, however, might increaserisk of breast cancer. If a woman's first pregnancy resulted in afirst trimester Noun 1. first trimester - time period extending from the first day of the last menstrual period through 12 weeks of gestationtrimester - a period of three months; especially one of the three three-month periods into which human pregnancy is divided abortion, the dramatic rise in undifferentiated cellsthat takes place during the first trimester would not be followed by themarked differentiation occurring during the second and third trimesters Noun 1. third trimester - time period extending from the 28th week of gestation until deliverytrimester - a period of three months; especially one of the three three-month periods into which human pregnancy is divided .The consequent sharp increase in the number of vulnerable cells wouldthus elevate breast cancer risk ... abortions occurring after awoman's [first full-term pregnancy] or any subsequent [full-termpregnancy] ... might have little effect, because the number ofundifferentiated cells eligible to proliferate pro��lif��er��atev.To grow or multiply by rapidly producing new tissue, parts, cells, or offspring. would be markedlysmaller, due to the prior pronounced breast development induced by each[f ull-term pregnancy]." (1) Before a woman's first pregnancy, her breasts consist mostlyof connective connective - An operator used in logic to combine two logical formulas. See first order logic. tissue surrounding a branching network of ducts, withrelatively few milk-producing cells. When a first child is conceived,progestational progestational/pro��ges��ta��tion��al/ (pro?jes-ta��shun-al)1. referring to that phase of the menstrual cycle just before menstruation, when the corpus luteum is active and the endometrium secreting.2. hormones flood the mother's system. Under theinfluence of these hormones, her breast cells undergo massive growth.The network of mild ducts begins to bud and branch, developing moreducts and new structures called "terminal end buds end budn.See tail bud. ." These endbuds begin to form "alveolar alveolar/al��ve��o��lar/ (al-ve��o-lar) [L. alveolaris ] pertaining to an alveolus. al��ve��o��laradj.Relating to an alveolus. buds," which will develop intothe actual milk-producing glands called "acini aciniPlural of acinus, eg, milk-producing glands of breast ." This periodof rapid growth toward maturity is when breast cells are most likely tobe affected by carcinogens CarcinogensSubstances in the environment that cause cancer, presumably by inducing mutations, with prolonged exposure.Mentioned in: Colon Cancer, Rectal Cancer . Quite a bit of research shows that when awoman completes her first full pregnancy, hormonal changes occur whichpermanently alter the structure of her breasts in a way that reduces herrisk of breast cancer. Conversely, a premature termination of a firstpregnancy interrupts this process, circumventing the protective effectsof a full-ter m pregnancy and possibly leaving millions of breast cellsin transitional states. Breast cancer is rising sharply among women (though not among men)worldwide, and alarm bells have rung in the medical research communityand governmental health agencies about the need to find out why. Thereare probably many reasons, but the possible connection to the abortionof a first pregnancy does show some promise among the epidemiologicalfactors, enough promise to warrant more definitive study. Early studies on breast cancer which included socioeconomic status socioeconomic status,n the position of an individual on a socio-economic scale that measures such factors as education, income, type of occupation, place of residence, and in some populations, ethnicity and religion. usually found that wealthy women have a higher rate of the disease thanpoor women. Krieger showed, by studying women by census block A census block is the smallest geographic unit used by the United States Census Bureau for tabulation of 100-percent data (data collected from all houses, rather than a sample of houses). Several blocks make up block groups, which again make up census tracts. , that thiswas in fact a difference in socioeconomic status rather than race (2).Before 1969, a legal abortion in a hospital was expensive, which meantthat women of higher economic status were much more likely than otherwomen to obtain abortions (3). If there is indeed a link betweenabortion and breast cancer, that may help account for the link betweenbreast cancer and socioeconomic status. In a study that seems to confirm this hypothesis, researchers foundthat women in Taiwan--a country that until recently had littleexperience with Western-style abortion--have no significant differencein breast cancer rates based on socioeconomic status (4). Inexpensive or free abortions would tend to change this pattern,and studies in states which provide free abortions indicate the patternhas, in fact, changed. Washington State legalized abortion in 1970,three years before the Roe v. Wade Roe v. Wade,case decided in 1973 by the U.S. Supreme Court. Along with Doe v. Bolton, this decision legalized abortion in the first trimester of pregnancy. decision. Affluent women inWashington have had little difficulty securing abortions. In the early1970s, Washington began to publicly fund abortions for the indigent indigent1) n. a person so poor and needy that he/she cannot provide the necessities of life (food, clothing, decent shelter) for himself/herself. 2) n. one without sufficient income to afford a lawyer for defense in a criminal case. . Thebreast cancer rate among poor women rose by 53% in the period from 1974to 1984, while it actually dropped 1% among wealthy women (5). Affluentwomen, who supposedly have always had access to abortion, experienced noincrease in the rate of breast cancer, while the rate among low-incomewomen rose substantially. A similar study in California, which also funds abortions for theindigent, found that by 1990, among young white women, there was nodifference in their rate of breast cancer between rich and poor (6).Washington and California have, to some extent, equalized poor and richwomen's access to abortion, and appear to have simultaneouslyequalized their risk of breast cancer. One factor often cited as a risk factor for breast cancer isoccupation. White females in professional, managerial, clerical andteaching environments suffer statistically higher instances of breastcancer death than women in lower socioeconomic positions (7). Some, butnot all, of this increased risk can be attributed to well-establishedrisk factors like age at first birth. As the United States Supreme Court United States Supreme Court:see Supreme Court, United States. has noted, however, abortion has become a way of life for women who holdthese kinds of jobs (8). Recognizing that, it would seem at leastplausible that a higher rate of breast cancer among these women could beattributed to their higher rate of abortion. While an increase in risk cannot be conclusively proven throughepidemiological studies alone, the demographic effects of such anincrease would be impossible to miss. If abortion causes even a slightincrease in the risk of cancer, the staggering abortion rate of oursociety must eventually make that risk evident. Tragically,population-based studies seem to suggest just that. Other causes such asdiet, genetics, radiation, miscarriage miscarriage:see abortion. miscarriageor spontaneous abortionSpontaneous expulsion of an embryo or fetus from the uterus before it can live outside the mother. , and environmental pollution havealways existed. They can be responsible for the relatively stable baselevel of breast cancer, but the recent global surge requires moreexplanation. Many advocates of legal abortion have been aware of the evidencesuggesting the possibility of a breast cancer/abortion link since atleast 1982. In March of that year, Willard Cates n. pl. 1. Provisions; food; viands; especially, luxurious food; delicacies; dainties.Catesfor which Apicius could not pay.- Shurchill.Choicest catesand the fiagon's best spilth.- R. Browning. , Jr. wrote an articlein Science which discussed the evidence of a link (9). His manuscriptwas reviewed by D.A. Grimes Grimes is a surname, that is believed to be of a Scandinavian decent and may refer to Aoibhinn Grimes Ashley Grimes Barbara Grimes, a Chicago murder victim Burleigh Grimes (1893–1985), US baseball player Camryn Grimes Charles Grimes , C. Tietze, R.W. Rochat, and C.W. Tyler, authors who havecontributed many articles to publications such as Family Planning family planningUse of measures designed to regulate the number and spacing of children within a family, largely to curb population growth and ensure each family’s access to limited resources. Perspectives, Studies in Family Planning, American Journal of Obstetric ob��stet��ricor ob��stet��ri��caladj.Of or relating to the profession of obstetrics or the care of women during and after pregnancy.obstetrical, obstetricpertaining to or emanating from obstetrics. Gynecology, and Obstetric Gynecology. The Response Of Abortion Providers Planned Parenthood Planned ParenthoodA service mark used for an organization that provides family planning services. Federation of America, which operates thelargest chain of abortion clinics in the United States United States,officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. and is currentlythe major source of industry expansion, issued the following statementin November of 1993: There is not one study in mainstream medical literature that provesa cause and effect relationship between abortion and breast cancer. Infact, there are many studies that show no relationship. The largest, and most comprehensive, study to date of a possiblelink between abortion and breast cancer was done in Sweden and reportedin the British Medical Journal The British Medical Journal, or BMJ, is one of the most popular and widely-read peer-reviewed general medical journals in the world.[2] It is published by the BMJ Publishing Group Ltd (owned by the British Medical Association), whose other on December 9, 1989. It followed, for aslong as 20 years, 49,000 women who had received abortions before the ageof 30. Not only did the study show no indication of an overall risk ofbreast cancer after an induced abortion in��duced abortionn.Abortion caused intentionally by the administration of drugs or by mechanical means.induced abortion, it suggested there could wellbe a lightly reduced risk. Many other studies have shown norelationship. The two studies cited by those promoting the alleged link are oflimited value because they don't account for the rest of thewoman's pregnancy history. These studies are not consideredconclusive from a medical point of view. Those who allege the breast cancer/abortion link rely on aself-published booklet by an author with no known expertise in thefield. This document, and a shorter brochure, are distributed by anorganization in Virginia ("AIM") which is unrecognized in themedical field and fails to describe its mission or source of support.Studies establishing this alleged link have not appeared in acceptedmedical journals or undergone mainstream peer review. Researchers don't know Don't know (DK, DKed)"Don't know the trade." A Street expression used whenever one party lacks knowledge of a trade or receives conflicting instructions from the other party. what causes breast cancer. In lookingat possible risk factors, it is known that having a full-term pregnancybefore age 35 is protective against breast cancer. Studies have shown that nuns, for example, have a much higher rateof breast cancer than the general population. If a woman were to have anabortion and no full-term pregnancy before 35 years of age, she wouldnot have the protection offered by a full-term pregnancy. But neitherwould a woman who gets pregnant after age 35, or a woman who never has achild. In any event, the relationship between pregnancy and breastcancer is a meaningful element of a woman's medical history, buthardly a reason in and of itself to make decisions about childbearing...or becoming a nun. Since no reliable, accepted study shows a link between abortion andbreast cancer this is not information that should be conveyed toclients. In fact, to do so would be irresponsible. Bogus medicalarguments and flawed conclusions serve only to create unwarranted fearin women; in no way do they contribute to informed consent. Recognizing that breast cancer takes the life of five women everyhour, that one woman in nine will get breast cancer during her lifetime,and that there has been no real progress in curing breast cancer in thelast 40 years, we support greatly increased efforts to determine thecauses of breast cancer, expand education and screening, and improvetreatment. The fact that there are more than the two studies claimed in thisstatement is shown in the accompanying list. The non-expert they cite isDr. Joel Brind Dr. Joel Brind is a pro-life born again Christian, scientist, and a leading advocate of the abortion-breast cancer hypothesis.[1] He is a professor of biology and endocrinology at Baruch College and critiques abortion-breast cancer studies. , professor of endocrinology at Baruch College Baruch College:see New York, City University of. , CityUniversity of New York The City University of New York (CUNY; acronym: IPA pronunciation: [kjuni]), is the public university system of New York City. , who is also a breast cancer researcher on staffat Beth Israel Hospital See: Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center in Boston Beth Israel Medical Center in Manhattan and Mount Sinai Hospital Mount Sinai Hospital can refer to: Mount Sinai Hospital (Toronto) Mount Sinai Hospital, New York Mount Sinai Medical Center & Miami Heart Institute Mount Sinai Hospital, Cleveland Mount Sinai Hospital, Chicago Mount Sinai Hospital, Milwaukee in New York City New York City:see New York, city. New York CityCity (pop., 2000: 8,008,278), southeastern New York, at the mouth of the Hudson River. The largest city in the U.S. , andhis work is submitted for peer review. An argument could be made aboutwhether he is correct or whether his research is flawed or tainted taint?v. taint��ed, taint��ing, taintsv.tr.1. To affect with or as if with a disease.2. To affect with decay or putrefaction; spoil. See Synonyms at contaminate.3. bybias, but he is not without credentials. While it is true that theinformation is being propounded by groups such as Abortion IndustryMonitor (AIM) and other organizations with a very definite taint taintan unpleasant odor and flavor in a human foodstuff of animal origin. Caused by the ingestion of the substance, commonly a plant such as Hexham scent, or while in storage, e.g. milk stored with pineapples, or as a result of animal metabolism, e.g. boar taint. ofanti-abortion bias, that only means that their obvious predilectionshould be a cause of skepticism, not complete dismissal. After all,Planned Parenthood's unmistakable financial interest in the outcomeof this debate would taint their pronouncements as well. The Swedish study (10) which they claim shows abortion to cause noincrease in "overall" risk of breast cancer, does not givethem the data support they seek. "Overall" risk was not atissue. Connection theorists have never claimed that every woman wholoses a pregnancy has a greater risk of breast cancer, but that womenwho have their first pregnancy terminated are at greater risk. TheSwedish researchers made no effort to identify a control group, nor didthey focus on women who aborted a��bort?v. a��bort��ed, a��bort��ing, a��bortsv.intr.1. To give birth prematurely or before term; miscarry.2. To cease growth before full development or maturation.3. their first pregnancy. In Sweden, unlikeAmerica, most women who get legal abortions have already had one or morechildren, and thus most women in this study have the lower risk ofbreast cancer associated with the protective effect of the first fullpregnancy. The Swedish study included women who already had a child withwomen who aborted their first pregnancy. They then compared the combinedresults to the total population, which included a high number of womenwho had had abortions, rather than to women who had not had a bortions.Because of these methodological errors, the Swedish researcherseffectively masked any possible link between first pregnancy abortionand breast cancer. The only time first-pregnancy abortions were distinguished from thewhole, the statistics showed that women who had an abortion after a livebirth had a breast cancer risk of 58% of the "average" risk inthe study, while women who had an abortion before a live birth had arisk of 109% of "average". The "average" risk in theSwedish study is based on the population at large. According to theauthors, the "average" risk of breast cancer is 40% higherthan it had been prior to the legalization LEGALIZATION. The act of making lawful. 2. By legalization, is also understood the act by which a judge or competent officer authenticates a record, or other matter, in order that the same may be lawfully read in evidence. Vide Authentication. of abortion. If one convertsthe risk factors to reflect this 40% rise, one sees that women who havean abortion after a live birth have an adjusted risk factor of 81% whilewomen who have the abortion first have an adjusted risk of 153% that ofSwedish women before the legalization of abortion. In short, even though this study is cited by Planned Parenthood torefute the connection theory, if one simply counts the women who abortedbefore their first live birth, the figures actually support the theory. Most interesting of all is the statement that "no study hasproven a cause and effect relationship between abortion and breastcancer." That is accurate. It is also true that no study has provena cause and effect relationship between smoking and lung cancer lung cancer,cancer that originates in the tissues of the lungs. Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer death in the United States in both men and women. Like other cancers, lung cancer occurs after repeated insults to the genetic material of the cell. , as theTobacco Institute constantly reminds the public. As every medicalprofessional knows, scientific proof of causation would requireethically prohibited direct experimentation on living human beings. Nostudy ever will "prove" the link. This is how the tobaccoindustry perpetuates the idea that there is a question about whethersmoking causes lung cancer, defying almost the entire remainder of thescientific community. The analogy between the two industries--tobacco and abortion--goesfarther than that. Starting with the initial public relations public relations,activities and policies used to create public interest in a person, idea, product, institution, or business establishment. By its nature, public relations is devoted to serving particular interests by presenting them to the public in the most campaignsin the 1920s which succeeded in inducing more women to smoke, cigaretteshave been presented as the "torch of freedom" for women.Advertising campaigns have advised women that "they've come along way" by virtue of having the freedom to smoke in public.Associating the image of "liberation" to the purchase ofproducts and services has been used by the abortion industry as well, tosimilarly potent effect. Of course, women have known for some time that smoking does causelung cancer and many other diseases, and many have continued to smoke inspite of this knowledge. Surely, if the first pregnancy abortionconnection to increased breast cancer risk were proven, then many womenwould still have abortions. It is, after all, only an increased risk,not a sure thing; the crisis of the moment may be more pressing on themind that the exigencies of the future. Nevertheless, there are many women who feel ambivalent aboutobtaining an abortion and would decide against it with this additionalinformation. Few people could be found outside the abortion industry, orperhaps among abortion defenders in their social movement, who wouldargue that the matter should not be more thoroughly researched, and thatwomen are entitled to this information. The information on the badhealth effects of cigarettes has led to reductions in tobaccoconsumption among women, but has not eliminated it entirely. Still, abortion defenders in their social movement have pervasiveinfluence in society. The tobacco industry might be green with envyconcerning some of the tactics of abortion defenders. The media, forinstance, has for the most part abandoned the cause of the tobaccoindustry; although there are still magazines with large tobaccoadvertising accounts that will neglect to discuss the health hazards health hazardOccupational safety Any agent or activity posing a potential hazard to health. Cf Physical hazard. ,the electronic media will allow full coverage of anti-tobacco activity.Virtually no one discusses the virtues of tobacco in the media, and veryfew take the protestations of the tobacco industry seriously. Abortionproviders currently enjoy a much better reputation among the media, atleast for the time being. The Response Of Abortion-sympathetic Health Groups Former United States Surgeon General The U.S. Surgeon General is charged with the protection and advancement of health in the United States. Since the 1960s the surgeon general has become a highly visible federal public health official, speaking out against known health risks such as tobacco use, and promoting disease Dr. Joycelyn Elders had apacket of several of the studies put into her hands by representativesof Feminists for Life Feminists for Life of America (FFL) is the largest and most visible pro-life feminist organization. Established in 1972 and now based in Alexandria, Virginia, the organization describes itself as "shaped by the core feminist values of justice, nondiscrimination, and nonviolence. of America at a public meeting in Washington, D.C.in October, 1993 (12); Elders promised to read the material. Herresponse to it was not forthcoming and in view of recent developments,is not expected. FFLA FFLA Florida Foreign Language AssociationFFLA Forest Fire Lookout AssociationFFLA Family Friendly Leave ActFFLA Federal Farm Loan Act of 1916FFLA Friendship Force of Los Angeles (Los Angeles, California, USA)also distributed the material to every member ofCongress and much of the press, and they were not the only organizationto do so. The politics of the abortion debate The abortion debate refers to discussion and controversy surrounding the moral and legal status of abortion. The two main groups involved in the abortion debate are the pro-choice movement, which generally supports access to abortion and regards it as morally permissible, and the seem to preclude the kindof response to this information that would be expected, were thispotential cause a relatively non-controversial item. The National Breast Cancer Coalition The National Breast Cancer Coalition (NBCC) is a grassroots membership organization, comprised of hundreds of member organizations and tens of thousands of individuals dedicated to ending breast cancer through action and advocacy. (NBCC NBCC New Brunswick Community CollegeNBCC National Book Critics Circle (since 1974; New York City)NBCC National Breast Cancer CoalitionNBCC National Breast Cancer CentreNBCC National Board for Certified Counselors, Inc. ), an American grassrootsadvocacy effort, issued a "Position Statement on Abortion andBreast Cancer" on March 24, 1994. The statement is quoted in itsentirety: Recently some organizations that are part of the anti-choicemovement have begun a campaign publicizing pub��li��cize?tr.v. pub��li��cized, pub��li��ciz��ing, pub��li��ciz��esTo give publicity to.Noun 1. publicizing - the business of drawing public attention to goods and servicesadvertising that abortion increases therisk of breast cancer. This assumption is based on the selective use ofsome epidemiologic studies epidemiologic studyA study that compares 2 groups of people who are alike except for one factor, such as exposure to a chemical or the presence of a health effect; the investigators try to determine if any factor is associated with the health effect which show a slight increase in breast cancerrisk after abortion. It ignores the numerous studies which have shown norelationship or a reduced risk of breast cancer. Breast cancer issues have been receiving more national attentiondue largely to the efforts of the NBCC to educate the public andgovernment of the need for more research to end this devastating dev��as��tate?tr.v. dev��as��tat��ed, dev��as��tat��ing, dev��as��tates1. To lay waste; destroy.2. To overwhelm; confound; stun: was devastated by the rude remark. epidemic. It is not surprising that organizations that have no interestor concern for women with breast cancer are using this increasedawareness to further their own agendas. Any organization's use ofmisleading information regarding the link between breast cancer andabortion to promote its own political gain rather than a concern aboutbreast cancer should be condemned as a deception to the American public. The NBCC supports more research to answer questions regarding anypossible link between breast cancer and abortion. In particular, theCoalition calls for an international collaboration to evaluate all ofthe existing data. Until such time that conclusive scientific evidenceexists, women should not feel the pressure of misleading propagandaintended to influence their decisions. Accusing all organizations that publicize pub��li��cize?tr.v. pub��li��cized, pub��li��ciz��ing, pub��li��ciz��esTo give publicity to.publicizeor -ciseVerb[-cizing, -cized] the possibility of aconnection of having "no interest in or concern for women withbreast cancer" is particularly ungracious to groups such asFeminists for Life of America, which participated in the NBCC'spetition drive calling for greater governmental attention to breastcancer research. The assertion is not otherwise documented. Still, the NBCC calls for more research on this possible link,which is more than Planned Parenthood's statement suggests. It istrue that those who oppose abortion would be convinced more quickly,while those who favor abortion availability can reasonably be expectedto be more reluctant and demand greater evidence. Nevertheless, bothsides can agree on the need for greater research so that more definitiveand unassailable answers can be found. Yet a distinction may need to bemade between those who have a strong philosophical identification withabortion availability and those who actually have a financial stake inabortion provision. The National Women's Health Network The National Women's Health Network is a non-profit women's health advocacy organization located in Washington, D.C.. It was founded in 1975 by Barbara Seaman, Alice Wolfson, Belita Cowan, Mary Howell, M.D., and Phyllis Chesler, Ph.D. , the only nationalpublic-interest membership organization devoted solely to women andhealth, also emphasizes the unproven nature of the possible link, yettakes the prudent and reasonable position that further research isneeded and important, that the evidence so far is sufficient to meritfurther resources into research. Its Fact Sheet, entitled "Abortionand Breast Cancer: The Unproven Link.", was issued in January 1994.It states, in part: Approximately seventy five studies have been conducted world widethat have collected information on breast cancer and reproductivefactors such as abortion, childbirth, menstrual cycles menstrual cyclen.The recurring cycle of physiological changes in the uterus, ovaries, and other sexual structures that occur from the beginning of one menstrual period through the beginning of the next. , and birthcontrol pills birth control pilln.See oral contraceptive.birth control pillOral contraceptive, see there . Unfortunately, data on abortion and breast cancer hasbeen published in only about twenty of the studies. Much vitalinformation is not publicly available. Those studies that have beenpublished show conflicting results. Some studies report a strongassociation between abortion and subsequent diagnosis of breast cancer;other studies find no association at all. An oft-cited [study] was reported by Pike et al. in 1981. It foundthat the risk of breast cancer was increased 2.4 times in women who hadeither a spontaneous or induced abortion before a first full termpregnancy (FFTP FFTP Fast File Transfer ProtocolFFTP Free Form Transfer ProtocolFFTP Fast Ftp ). Hadjimichael found that breast cancer risk wasincreased 3.5 times among women who had experienced an abortion before aFFTP (Hadjimichael, 1986). A Danish study found a smaller increase inrisk (1.4 times) in a group of women whose first pregnancies terminatedbefore 28 weeks (Ewertz, 1987). Howe found that the risk of breastcancer was increased by 1.9 times among women who had undergone aninduced abortion (Howe, 1989). On the other hand, several studies have reported that abortion doesnot increase breast cancer risk. In 1981 Vessey reported no indicationof any association between breast cancer and abortion (Vessey, 1981).LaVecchia and Parazzini also studied the relationship between breastcancer and abortions/miscarriages. In the 1987 study, the researchersreported "little relation of breast cancer risk with abortions ormiscarriages." (La Vecchia La Vecchia is an Italian surname: Jaynee LaVecchia, American Justice Luigi Lavecchia, Italian footballer See alsoLuca Portavecchia Vitangelo Spadavecchia This page or section lists people with the surname La Vecchia. , 1987). In a recent study the sameresearchers again found no consistent relationship (Parazzini, 1991).Data by Rosenberg et al. "Suggest(s) that the risk of breast canceris not materially affected by abortion, regardless of whether it occursbefore or after the first term birth" (Rosenberg, 1988). The riskswere equal for women who had experienced an abortion and those who hadnot. In summary, the evidence for the link between abortion and breastcancer is completely inconclusive at present. Why is the evidence currently inconclusive? Although there havebeen many studies that gathered information on the possible relationshipof abortion to breast cancer, there are many questions whichhaven't been researched fully. For example, some researchersspeculate that if abortion is associated with breast cancer, it mayincrease the risk only for women who have abortions when they areteenagers. New studies need to be conducted now, because larger numbersof women who had abortions as teenagers are approaching the age whenbreast cancer is more common. Does it make a djfference if abortion occurs before or afterchildbirth? Some of the studies mentioned in this paper looked at timingof childbirth in relation to abortion, but much more data is needed. Is there any difference between induced abortion and spontaneousabortion spon��ta��ne��ous abortionn.A naturally occurring termination of a pregnancy. Also called miscarriage.spontaneous abortion(miscarriage) in later risk of breast cancer? Some of thepublished studies have combined women who had abortions and miscarriagesinto one group when risks were analyzed. Studies need to be designed tolook at these two events separately. Many other similar questions haven't been fully researched.Until these issues are explored, it will not be possible to conclusivelyanswer the question of whether or not abortion increases the risk ofbreast cancer. However, researchers in another field have conductedinteresting experiments that raise questions about how the breast mightbe affected by abortion. How might the physiology of the breast be affected by abortion?Before a first pregnancy, a woman's breasts consist of a network ofducts and terminal end buds, immature cells that have the potential tobecome specialized milk-producing cells. When a woman conceives,horifiones involved in pregnancy cause these terminal end buds todifferentiate into alveolar buds and lobules LobulesA small lobe or subdivision of a lobe (often on a gland) that may be seen on the surface of the gland by bumps or bulges.Mentioned in: Fibrocystic Condition of the Breast in preparation for thebreast feeding breast feedingPediatrics The provision of a neonate and infant with liquified lacteal products 'on tap'; lactation and BF–≥ 6 months before age 20 is associated with a relative risk of 0. . The terminal end buds grow and proliferate rapidly asthey differentiate. Researchers believe that after the cells havedifferentiated, they are not as susceptible to carcinogens(cancer-causing agents) because the proliferative pro��lif��er��a��tiveor pro��lif��er��ousadj.Tending to proliferate.proliferativepertaining to or emanating from proliferation. ability of the cellsis reduced. Biological evidence from animal studies demonstrates that there isa plausible explanation for an association between breast cancer andabortion. When pregnancy is interrupted, as in abortion, the mammaryglands mammary gland,organ of the female mammal that produces and secretes milk for the nourishment of the young. A mammal may have from 1 to 11 pairs of mammary glands, depending on the species. Generally, those mammals that bear larger litters have more glands. contain some areas with completely differentiated structures andother areas of immature cells (Russo, 1981). Thus, the breast is moresusceptible to the initiation or promotion of cancer. Studies of thiseffect in rats are useful since rats' breast tissue is similar tohumans. In experiments, Russo has found that animals who had an inducedabortion were at the same risk of breast cancer as animals treated witha chemical typically used to induce cancer in rats. This is the onlystudy reporting this finding. More work needs to be done to confirm theeffect of abortion in rats and to determine whether the developmentalmechanisms are the same in women. When will we have the answer? An international collaboration toanalyze all seventy five studies with data on abortion and breast cancerhas begun. Results of this summary are scheduled to be available inabout twenty-four months. This will nearly triple the amount of datacurrently available and has the potential to address some of thequestions which are currently unanswered. Two of the studies cited as showing no link are in fact included onthe accompanying list as ones that do show such evidence; again, theirdata tend to support the theory when abortion of the first pregnancy islooked at specifically. The Vessey study (12) looked at women inten-year age blocks, so that any increased risk in 38-year-old womenwould be diluted by a lack of increase in 31-year-old women. Similarly,the Rosenberg study (13) did not match the ages in its groups; while thewomen with breast cancer averaged 52 years of age, the control groupaveraged only 40 years old. Since age has long been recognized as amajor risk factor, this lack of corresponding ages taints the studysubstantially. Still, an approach of treating studies not showing a linkand studies which do equally, and mentioning them both, is moreeven-handed and reasonable than the approach taken by PlannedParenthood. It would stand to reason that those who oppose abortion wouldbecome convinced with less evidence, and groups that favor abortionaccessibility such as the National Women's Health Network would bemuch more cautious and skeptical and demand greater evidence.Nevertheless, all those who have women's interests at heart in bothviewpoints come to the same conclusion: the evidence thus far clearlyindicates the need for further research, because women are entitled tohave answers. A Possible Predictive Model Let us suppose that the increasingly accumulating peer-reviewedstudies continue to grow in size and number as time goes on. If this isnot the case, then the following discussion will be irrelevant, and theview-points expressed by groups such as Planned Parenthood will beconfirmed. If it is the case, however, then the public policyimplications deserve exploration. What would be the response from those who hold to medical ethics medical ethicsThe moral construct focused on the medical issues of individual Pts and medical practitioners. See Baby Doe, Brouphy, Conran, Jefferson, Kevorkian, Quinlan, Roe v Wade, Webster decision. ?The right of patients to have information is basic. Any possiblecomplications from a surgical procedure (or a drug regimen) areunambiguously information that any patient has a right to knowbeforehand. Additionally, any advocacy position stating that women have theright to control their own bodies, to have sovereignty to make decisionsfor their own lives, would obligate obligate/ob��li��gate/ (ob��li-gat) pertaining to or characterized by the ability to survive only in a particular environment or to assume only a particular role, as an obligate anaerobe. the dissemination of thisinformation. The consciousness of women cannot be raised if they arekept in the dark on any subject. This is all the more the case onanything involving this magnitude of impact upon a woman's life. There is another enterprise which has been faced with the necessityof defending its product against studies suggesting an increase incancer due to its use: the tobacco industry. Its reactional behaviorcould provide a predictive model for abortion providers as well. The January 1967 issue of True magazine featured an article thatsaid there is no evidence to show that smoking causes cancer. That issuewas widely advertised, and free copies of the article were sent to tensof thousands of influential Americans with a note from True. However,the organization Action on Smoking and Health filed a complaint to theFederal Trade Commission, and established that the article had actuallybeen written by an employee of the industry's public relationsfirm. The ads had been placed and the mailings had been sentsurreptiously by the industry, not by the magazine (14). The tobacco companies know quite well that the fact that women (andmen) have knowledge of the health impacts of their products decreasestheir business. They therefore continually deny this health impact anddo so in the face of mounting evidence. They have countered withquestionable studies of their own, and used ad hominem attacks An ad hominem attack is a personal attack in the form of an ad hominem argument.Ad hominem attacks are often used in a debate or discussion where the speaker wishes to avoid the substance of the discussion and instead resorts to smearing the character of their opponent. , usingsuch terms as "fumophobe" to describe opponentes (15). Clearly, a major distinction between the two businesses exists, Thetobacco industry has a product it wishes to sell, and it makes nopretense otherwise. Abortion clinics, on the other hand, insist thatthey provide a service only because it is necessary, and theirspokespeople will occasionally make remarks on the merits on the meritsadj. referring to a judgment, decision or ruling of a court based upon the facts presented in evidence and the law applied to that evidence. A judge decides a case "on the merits" when he/she bases the decision on the fundamental issues and considers of reducingthe need for those services. Therefore, the use of the model of thetobacco industry's response has predictive value pre��dic��tive valuen.The likelihood that a positive test result indicates disease or that a negative test result excludes disease.predictive valuea measure used by clinicians to interpret diagnostic test results. only inasmuch as in��as��much as?conj.1. Because of the fact that; since.2. To the extent that; insofar as.inasmuch asconj1. since; because2. those in abortion provision in reality view themselves as having aproduct to sell. Will the financial incentives outweigh the establishedmedical ethics of providing complete informed consent for patients? Willthey continually deny the evidence as it mounts, counter withquestionable studies of their own, and employ ad hominem attacks? A glimpse of what may be forthcoming is provided in statements madeduring a televised interview of Pamela Maraldo], president of PlannedParenthood Federation of America. Discussing the most well publicized pub��li��cize?tr.v. pub��li��cized, pub��li��ciz��ing, pub��li��ciz��esTo give publicity to.Adj. 1. publicized - made known; especially made widely knownpublicised study to date (16) Maraldo was asked, "If, indeed, your panel ofmedical experts studies this study by Dr. Daling, and you find it to besolid, good science, what are the chances you will begin warning womenabout this possible link?" Maraldo responded, "Even ifit's solid, good science, then to begin to warn women and upsetwomen on the basis of one study is clearly irresponsible. One study isnot adequate evidence to change a policy or to upset a frightenedwoman." (17) Based on this model, further predictions would include the public,the media, members of Congress, and the breast cancer research communityfinding this response reasonable and acceptable initially, whilebecoming increasingly impatient as evidence of a link continues tomount, assuming it does so. Any action exposing a disregard for mountingevidence--especially where a clear financial interest can bedemonstrated--and callous cal��lousadj.Of, relating to, or characteristic of a callus or callosity.callousof the nature of a callus; hard. indifference for a women's right toinformed consent, are ultimately unlikely to be widely appealing. Taking the road of medical ethics would not only be the morallyright thing for abortion providers to do, it would also be the mostastute strategy: abortion providers very much need an image of carefulprofessionalism in medical settings. Squandering squan��der?tr.v. squan��dered, squan��der��ing, squan��ders1. To spend wastefully or extravagantly; dissipate. See Synonyms at waste.2. that image would likelybe far more damaging to them than any revelations about possible cancerlinks could ever be. The predictive value of the model of the tobaccoindustry depends entirely on how abortion providers actually view theirown practice. Impact on the Individual Women ambivalent about having an abortion may find informationsuggesting a breast cancer link ultimately disuasive. Women beingpressured to have an abortion may find the information a useful tool inresisting the interests of others. Some may be more circumspect cir��cum��spect?adj.Heedful of circumstances and potential consequences; prudent.[Middle English, from Latin circumspectus, past participle of circumspicere, to take heed : withregard to contraception, or even elect to forego sexual opportunitiesthat could lead to pregnancy. Others, determined to obtain an abortion,are unlikely to be swayed by what they will probably view as justanother risk. What about those women for whom all these options are foreclosed byvirtue of their having had an abortion? Researchers like Daling andKrieger insist that there is no cause for panic, (18) and the scienceappears to affirm this. Even if the evidence were to become conclusive,an increased risk only means the presence of another factor which shouldbe considered as part of a woman's medical history and inconsultation with her physician. Yet it must be said that while the increase in risk appears to poselittle cause for alarm among individual women, the increase alsosuggests a profound impact on women as a group, considering the highabortion rate in contemporary American society. If the evidence for anabortion/breast cancer link eventually becomes unassailable, then wewill know that thousands of women have died of breast cancer who mightotherwise have lived if not for the prevalence of abortion. NOTES (1.) Krieger, Nancy "Exposure Susceptibility and Breast CancerRisk" Breast Cancer Research and Treatment 13:205-23, 1989 (2.) Krieger, N., "Social class and the black/white crossoverin the age-specific incidence of breast cancer: a study linkingcensus-derived data to population-based registry records," Am. J.Epidemiol. 131:804-814 (1990) (3.) Cates, W., Jr., "Legal abortion: the public healthrecord" Science 215:1586-1590 (1982) (4.) Lin, T.M., K.P. Chen, and B. MarMahon "Epidemiologicalcharacteristics of cancer of the breast in Taiwan" Cancer27:1497-1504 (1970) (5.) White, E., J. Daling, T.L. Norsted, J. Chu, "Risingincidence of breast cancer among young women in Washington State,"J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 79:239-43 (1987) (6.) Krieger, N., "Social class and the black/white crossoverin the age-specific incidence of breast cancer: a study linkingcensus-derived data to population-based registry records," Am. J.Epidemiol. 131:804-814 (1990) (7.) Rubin, C.h., C.A. Burnett, W.E. Halperin, P.J. Seligman,"Occupation as a risk idenitifier for breast cancer", Am. J.Public Health 83:1311-5 (1993). (8.) Planned Parenthood vs. Casey, 1992. (9.) Cates, W., Jr., "Legal abortion: the public healthrecord" Science 215:1586-1590 (1982) (10.) Lindefors-Harris, B.M., G. Edlund, O. Meirik, L.E. Rutqvist,and K. Wiklund, "Risk of cancer of the breast after legal abortionduring the first trimester: A Swedish register study", Brit britalso britt ?n.1. The young of herring and similar fish.2. Minute marine organisms, such as crustaceans of the genus Calanus, that are a major source of food for right whales. . Med.J. 299:1430-1432 (1989) (11.) Town Hall Meeting on Health Care, sponsored by Eleanor HolmesNorton Eleanor Holmes Norton (born June 13, 1937) is a member of the United States House of Representatives but is not a full voting member. She is a Delegate to Congress representing the District of Columbia, a position that carries more limited voting powers than full House members. , Saturday, October 16, 1993, at the Great Hall, Hubert Humphrey Hubert Horatio Humphrey, Jr. (May 27, 1911 – January 13, 1978) was the thirty-eighth Vice President of the United States, serving under President Lyndon Johnson. Humphrey twice served as a United States Senator from Minnesota, and served as Democratic Majority Whip. Building of the United States Department of Health and Human Services United States Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS),n.pr a cabinet-level government organization comprising 12 agencies, including the Food and Drug Administration and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (12.) Vessey, M.P., K. McPherson, D. Yeates, and R. Doll,"Oral contraceptive oral contraceptiven.A pill, typically containing estrogen or progesterone, that prevents conception or pregnancy. Also called birth control pill. use and abortion before first term pregnancy inrelation to breast cancer risk," Br. J. Cancer, 45:327-331 (1982) (13.) Rosenberg, Lynn. "Breast cancer in relation to theoccurrence and time of induced and spontaneous abortion". Am. J.Epidemiol. 127:981-989 (1988) (14.) ASH Smoking and Health Review, July-August, 1994, page 4. (15.) Ibid. (16.) Daling, Janet, "Risk of breast cancer among young women:relationship to induced abortion", Journal of the National CancerInstitute, 86:1584 (1994). (17.) Vargas, Elizabeth, "A Dangerous Link", DatelineNBC Dateline NBC, or Dateline, is a U.S. weekly television newsmagazine broadcast by NBC similar to ABC's 20/20 or CBS's 60 Minutes. HistoryThe show, which has aired since 1992, is currently anchored by Ann Curry. , television news program, November 1, 1994. National BroadcastingCorporation. Producer: Elizabeth Fischer, Editor: Robert Brandel. (18.) Ibid. Studies suggestive of suggestive ofDecision making adjective Referring to a pattern by LM or imaging, that the interpreter associates with a particular–usually malignant lesion. See Aunt Millie approach, Defensive medicine. a breast cancer-abortion link (inchronological order) "An epidemiological study of cancer in Japan" Segi, M.,I. Fukushima, and M. Kurihara GANN GANN Georgia Association of Neonatal Nurses 48(Supp): 1(1957). Reported a higherrate of both spontaneous and induced abortions among breast cancerpatients; increased risk ranged from 100% to 400% among the differentsubgroups in the study. "Epidemiology of cancer of the uterine uterine/uter��ine/ (u��ter-in) pertaining to the uterus. u��ter��ineadj.Of, relating to, or in the region of the uterus. cervix cervix/cer��vix/ (ser��viks) pl. cer��vices ? [L.]1. neck.2. the front portion of the neck.3. cervix uteri. and corpus,breast and ovary ovary,ductless gland of the female in which the ova (female reproductive cells) are produced. In vertebrate animals the ovary also secretes the sex hormones estrogen and progesterone, which control the development of the sexual organs and the secondary sexual in Israel and New York City" Stewart, H.L. andL.J. Dunham J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 37:1-95(1966). More Israeli breastcancer patients had pregnancies which terminated in the first trimesterthan did the control group. "Lactation lactationProduction of milk by female mammals after giving birth. The milk is discharged by the mammary glands in the breasts. Hormones triggered by delivery of the placenta and by nursing stimulate milk production. and reproductive histories reproductive historyObstetrics A set of 4 numbers that may be used to define a woman's obstetric Hx–eg, 4-3-2-1, would mean 4 term infants delivered, 3 preterm infants, 2 abortions, 1 child currently living of breast-cancerpatients in Tokyo, Japan" Yuasa, S. and B, MacMahon Bull. WHO42:195-204(1970). "There was a significant excess of [cancer] casesreporting one or more abortions" "Epidemiological characteristics of cancer of the breast inTaiwan" Lin, T.M., K.P. Chen, and B. MacMahon Cancer27:1497-1504(1970). Women with one or more abortions had a cancer risk50% higher than that of women who did not; with two or more abortions,the risk rose to 100% higher. "Breast cancer in an area of high parity" Mirra, P. P.Cole, and B. MacMahon Cancer Res. 31:77-83(1971). In a Brazilian study,more breast cancer patients reported having had abortions than did thecontrol group. "Breast Cancer in pre-menopausal and post-menopausalwomen" Stavraky, K. and S. Emmons J. Natl. Cancer Inst.53:647-654(1974). Thirty-seven percent of patients who developed breastcancer after menopause had had at least one abortion, while only 27% ofwomen with other cancers reported having had an abortion. "Risk factors of breast cancer in Finland" Soini, I.Intl. J. Epidemiol. 6:365.373(1977). Rate of breast cancer among womenin Finland increased with number of abortions. "An epidemiologic study of breast cancer" Choi, N.W.,G.R. Howe, A.B. Miller, V. Matthews, R.W. Morgan, L. Munan, J.D. Burch,J. Feather, M. Jain, and A. Kelly Amer J. Epidemiol. 107:510-521(1978).Women whose pregnancies lasted four months or less showed astatistically significant increase in breast cancer. "The role of reproductive history in breast cancercausation" Dvoirin, V.V. and A.B. Medvedev Methods and results ofstudies of breast cancer epidemiology, 53-56. Tallinn, Estonia (inRussian)(1978). Case-control study case-control study,n an investigation employing an epidemiologic approach in which previously existing incidents of a medical condition are used in lieu of gathering new information from a randomized population. in the North Caucasus The North Caucasus is the northern part of the Caucasus region between Europe and Asia. The term is also used as a synonym for the North Caucasus Economical Region of Russia. , Soviet Union,found an increased risk in women with three or more induced abortions of240%. With one or two induced abortions, the increase in risk was 100%. "A review of the epidemiology of human breast cancer"Kelsey, J.L. Epidemiol. Rev. 1:74-109(1979). "Pregnancies of lessthan four to five months duration may be associated with an increasedrisk." "Susceptibility of mammary gland to carcinogenesis car��ci��no��gen��e��sisn.The production of cancer.carcinogenesisproduction of cancer.biological carcinogenesisviruses and some parasites are capable of initiating neoplasia. : Pregnancyinterruption as a risk factor." Russo, J., Russo, I.H. AmericanJournal of Pathology 100:497-512(1980). The breast tissue of rats issimilar to that of humans, and this study in rats found that animals whohad an induced abortion were at the same risk of breast cancer asanimals treated with a chemical typically used to induce cancer in rats.Whether the developmental mechanisms are the same in women requiresfurther study, of course, but this study was cited by the NationalWomen's Health Network as giving a plausible explanation for whythere should be a connection. "Oral contraceptive use and early abortion early abortionObstetrics An abortion performed before the 12th wk of gestation. See Abortion. as risk factors forbreast cancer in young women" Pike, M.C., B.E. Henderson, J.T.Casagrande, I. Rosario, and G.E. Gray Brit. J. Cancer 43:72-76(1981).First trimester abortion of first pregnancies led to increased risk of140% (2.4 times) among women under 32. "Reproductive factors in the aetiology aetiologysee etiology. of breast cancer"Brinton, L.A., R. Hoover, and J.F. Fraumeni, Jr. Brit. J. Cancer47:757-782(1983). Raw numbers in this study nearly duplicate Pike'sfindings two years earlier. "Interrupted pregnancy as one indicator of poor prognosis inT1, T2, No, Mo primary breast cancer" Ownby, H.E., S. Martino, L.D. Roi, L. Howard, J. Russo, S. Brooks, and M.J. Brennan Breast CancerRes. Treat. 3:339-344(1983). Women with one abortion had twice as manyrecurrences of cancer as those with none; women with two or moreabortions had three times as many cases of cancer. "Occurrence of breast cancer in relation to diet andreproductive history: a case-control study in Fukuoka, Japan"Hirohata, T., T. Shigematsu, A.M.Y. Nomura Natl. Cancer Inst. Mono.69:187(1985). After multiple logistic regression In statistics, logistic regression is a regression model for binomially distributed response/dependent variables. It is useful for modeling the probability of an event occurring as a function of other factors. analysis, risk amongwomen with any induced abortion was 52% higher than from women who hadno abortions. "Abortion before first live birth and risk of breastcancer" Hadjimichael, O.C., C.A. Boyle, and J.W. Meigs Brit. J.Cancer 53:281-284(1986). Abortion before first live birth, afteradjusting for other known risk factors, increased risk by 250% (3.5times). "General epidemiology of breast cancer in Northern Italy Northern Italy comprises of two areas belonging to NUTS level 1: North-West (Nord-Ovest): Aosta Valley, Piedmont, Lombardy, Liguria North-East (Nord-Est): Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Veneto, Trentino-Alto Adige/S��dtirol, Emilia-Romagna "La Vecchia, C., A. Decarli, F. Parazzini, A. Gentile, E. Negi, G.Cecchetti and S. Franceschi Intl. J. Epidemiol. 16:347-355(1987). Riskamong Italian women with one or more legal abortions before first livebirth was increased by 42%. Researchers reported "little relationof breast cancer risk with abortions or miscarriages", and thisstudy is cited as one to make the connection inconclusive. Yet it didshow a positive increase when only the abortion of a first pregnancy isconsidered. "Risk of breast cancer in relation to reproductive factors inDenmark" Ewertz, M. and S.W. Duffy Brit. J. Cancer 58:99-104(1988).Termination of first pregnancy before 28 weeks increased risk by 43%;two or more abortions before the first full pregnancy increased the riskby 73%; one induced abortion with no live births increased risk by 285%. "Risk factors for breast cancer in Chinese women inShanghai" Yuan, J.M., M.C. Yu, and R.K. Ross Cancer Res.48:1949(1988). Among Chinese women who developed breast cancer beforethe age of 40, abortion before first full-term pregnancy led toincreased risk of 140%. "Breast cancer and pregnancy: the ultimate challenge"Clark, R.M. and T. Chua Clin. Oncol. Royal Coll. Radiol. 1:11-18(1989).Among women who developed cancer while pregnant: those who carriedpregnancy to term had a 20% survival rate; women who miscarried receivedmore aggressive treatment and had a 42% survival rate, but every womanwho chose abortion died. "Early abortion and breast-cancer risk among women under40" Howe, Holly, R.T. Senie, H. Bzduch, and P. Herzfeld Int. J.Epidemiol. 18:300-304(1989). Abortion of first pregnancy led toincreased risk of 90% (1.9 times). Repeated abortions heightened risk by300%. "Risk of cancer of the breast after legal abortion duringfirst trimester: A Swedish register study" Lindefors-Harris, B.M.,G. Edlund, O. Meirik, L.E. Rutqvist, and K. Wiklund Brit. Med. J.299:1430-1432(1989). Women who had an abortion before a live birth hadan 88% greater risk of breast cancer than did women who had a live birthbefore an abortion. "Proliferation proliferation/pro��lif��er��a��tion/ (pro-lif?er-a��shun) the reproduction or multiplication of similar forms, especially of cells.prolif��erativeprolif��erous pro��lif��er��a��tionn. and DNA DNA:see nucleic acid. DNAor deoxyribonucleic acidOne of two types of nucleic acid (the other is RNA); a complex organic compound found in all living cells and many viruses. It is the chemical substance of genes. ploidy ploidyNumber of sets of chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell. In normal human body cells, chromosomes exist in pairs, a condition called diploidy. During meiosis the cell produces sex cells (gametes), each containing half the normal number of chromosomes, a condition called in malignant breast tumors inrelation to early oral contraceptive use and early abortions"Olsson, H., J. Ranstam, B. Baldetop, S.-B. Ewers, M. Ferno, D.Killander, H. Sigurdsson Cancer 67:1285-1290(1991). Abortion of firstpregnancy led to more aggressive tumors. "Her-2/neu and INT2 proto-oncogene amplification in malignantbreast tumors in relation to reproductive factors and exposure toexogenous ExogenousDescribes facts outside the control of the firm. Converse of endogenous. hormones" Olsson, H., A. Borg, M. Femo, J. Ranstam, andH. Sidgurdsson J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 83:1483.1487(1991). Breast cancersof women who aborted their first pregnancy showed many times the normalrate of INT2, a specific gene associated with breast cancer. "Spontaneous and induced abortions and risk of breastcancer" Parazzini, F., C. La Vecchia, and E. Negri Int. J. Cancer48:816.820(1991). Legal abortions in Italy before first birth led toincreased risk of 30%. Again, a report cited as showing no relationbetween abortion and live birth, but actually containing data showingone with abortion of ties first pregnancy is considered. "Variations in the risk of breast cancer associated with afamily history of breast cancer according to age at onset andreproductive factors" Andrieu, Nadine, et. al. J. Clin. Epidemiol.46:973-980(1993) Researchers found no statistically significantabortion-related increase in breast cancer risk for women in general,but made the statistically significant finding that women with a familyhistory of breast cancer were 280% more likely to get cancer if they hadhad two or more abortions. "Breast cancer risk factors in African-American women: theHoward University Howard University,at Washington, D.C.; coeducational; with federal support. It was founded in 1867 by Gen. Oliver O. Howard of the Freedmen's Bureau, to provide education for newly emancipated slaves. A normal and preparatory department was opened the same year. Tumor tumor:see neoplasm. Registry experience," Laing, Amelia, et.al. J. Natl. Med. Assoc. 85:931.939(1993). Shows a 50% increase in riskat or near the age of 40, a 180% increase in risk between 40-49, and a370% increase for women 50 and older. "Role of genetic and reproductive factors in breastcancer" Genetic Epidemiol. 11:285(1894). Did show an increase inrisk, though not one that could eliminate the possibility of chance. "Reproductive and lifestyle risk factors for breast cancer inAfrican-American women" Genetic Epidemiol. 11:285(1994). Done undera National Cancer Institute grant, this was a follow-up to theexploratory research Exploratory research is a type of research conducted because a problem has not been clearly defined. Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data collection method and selection of subjects. at Howard University of the previous year. Thestudy shows a significantly significant 144% increase in breast cancerrisk for woman who have bad abortions. "Does abortion increase breast cancer risk?" J. Natl.Cancer Inst. 85:1987-88(1993). Dr. Janet Daling is quoted as saying,"There is a 50% to 90% increase in risk for women who lead anabortion before the age of 18." This large-scale study was done atthe Fred Huechinson Cancer Research Center in Seattle. "Risk of breast cancer among young women: relationship toinduced abortion", Daling, Janet. J. Natl. Cancer Inst.86:3584(1994). This study found a 50% increased chance of breast cancerfor women under 45, and a higher risk when the first abortion was priorto 18 years of age.