The pitfalls and promises of special education practice.

The pitfalls and promises of special education practice. * Cultural, racial, and economic diversity are realities inAmerican schools. Unfortunately, academic achievement is correlated withthis diversity, meaning that, on the average, some ethnic groupscontinue to experience low achievement. For example, African-American,American Indian, and Hispanic children tend not to experience highachievement. Some educators have tried to address the problem, but theirefforts over the years have been notoriously unsuccessful. As wecontinue to try to provide remedial services for the student who getsbehind and special education services for students with disabilities, weshould follow the admonition Any formal verbal statement made during a trial by a judge to advise and caution the jury on their duty as jurors, on the admissibility or nonadmissibility of evidence, or on the purpose for which any evidence admitted may be considered by them. sometimes heard in the medical profession,"When you are deciding about a treatment for a sick patient, firstdo no harm." Our children are in need of high-quality teaching; insome cases, they need special education or remedial services. As we seekto provide these, we must first do no harm. Either our special servicesmust have the high probability of being successful or there is no needfor such services at all. PROBLEMS WITH U.S. EDUCATION At this point in the history of the United States “American history” redirects here. For the history of the continents, see History of the Americas.The United States of America is located in the middle of the North American continent, with Canada to the north and the United Mexican States to the south. , we do not have asystem of education that matches, in quality, the economic and politicalposition of the most powerful nation in the world (though our positionhere, too, is slipping). Embarrassing reports appear regularly invarious media to remind us that the United States ranks near the bottomof industrialized nations in the academic achievement of its youngpeople. Allowing for bias in assessment instruments and weaknesses inevaluation practices, we still must search hard to find evidence of realpower in U.S. education systems generally. Real pedagogical ped��a��gog��ic? also ped��a��gog��i��caladj.1. Of, relating to, or characteristic of pedagogy.2. Characterized by pedantic formality: a haughty, pedagogic manner. power meansthat all children reach a high level of achievement on criterion-basedstandards. It means that children who may have disabilities receivesophisticated, valid services that cause them to do better than theywould have done if they had not received special services at all. Many of us are familiar with the statistics that support thisconclusion, but few of us seem to have confronted the profoundimplications of that conclusion. A nation so situated academically-- andbeing challenged by economic forces from around the world--wouldcertainly seem to be a nation that would give urgent, compellingattention to education for the masses, the engine of its future success. In addition, that nation ought to be concerned about the quality oflife of all citizens, which means that education for employment is onlya part of the problem. For example, locating, evaluating, using, andcontributing information for one's personal use is a goal for themasses of our people. We are far behind on such things as simpleliteracy, not to mention access to the vast network of computerizedinformation services See Information Systems. . In other words Adv. 1. in other words - otherwise stated; "in other words, we are broke"put differently , we have a major problem with the regulareducational system. One of our great needs is for an honest andcomprehensive look at the nature of these problems. Until we do, theproblems associated with special education-- and equity issues thatderive from them--can hardly be solved, inasmuch as they are imbedded inthe larger problem of the quality of regular education. PROBLEMS WITH EQUITY IN SPECIAL EDUCATION We know that we have a problem in equity when we see the outcomesof education distributed as a function of socioeconomic status, race,culture, and language groups. This symptom is manifest first in theregular education system and is later found in the special educationsystem (Skrtic, 1991). It may be exacerbated in the special educationsystem, when able children are diagnosed invalidly, labeled, and placedin special education (Heller, Holtzman, & Messick, 1982; Hilliard,1987). Sensitive observers have always been aware, at an intuitive level,of some of our major problems. In recent years, however, a growingnumber of educational researchers and theoreticians have provided uswith precisely the type of analytical literature that is grounded inempirical documentation, followed by inspired theoretical analysis(Lipsky & Gartner, 1989; Skrtic, 1991 ). This new literature allowsus to take the dilettantes out of the game. It also imposes a higherlevel of responsibility on those of us who have become familiar with thesignificant and essential literature. Let me give just a few examples ofwhat I mean. The NRC NRCabbr.1. National Research Council2. Nuclear Regulatory CommissionNoun 1. NRC - an independent federal agency created in 1974 to license and regulate nuclear power plants Report Some years ago, the U.S. Office of Civil Rights expressed alarm atthe disproportionately high number of African-American males that werebeing placed into classes for students with mental retardation. Anappeal was made by the Office of Civil Rights to the National ResearchCouncil (NRC) of the National Academy of Sciences to do a study todetermine the reasons for this phenomenon. The question of thescientific validity of certain practices in special education was atissue. As is its practice, the NRC selected a diverse group of scholarsand commissioned them to do a state-of-the-art paper on specialeducation placement practices. After 2 years of evaluation work, the NRCissued a report, Placing Children in Special Education: A Strategy forEquity (Heller et al., 1982). The field of special education was slow in responding to thisimportant report, the first of its kind. A ran; declaration was made atthe very beginning of this report, that the very purpose of assessmentand placement in special education was to improve the educationaloutcomes for children. This simple declaration had far-reachingimplications. If this were indeed the purpose of special education, thenall practices could and should be evaluated against that rigorouscriterion. One important goal of the NRC's Committee on thePlacement of Children in Special Education's literature review wasto discover if assessment and treatment in special education had thepositive and significant effect that was expected. The results of the literature review were a shock to some. Therewere no data to support the conclusion that assessment, placement, andtreatment led to higher achievement. To make matters worse, the reviewalso revealed that referral was tantamount to placement, that the highlytouted "team assessments" did not function as intended, andthat the individualized education program In the United States an Individualized Education Program, commonly referred to as an IEP, is mandated by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). In Canada an equivalent document is called an Individual Education Plan. (IEP IEPIn currencies, this is the abbreviation for the Irish Punt.Notes:The currency market, also known as the Foreign Exchange market, is the largest financial market in the world, with a daily average volume of over US $1 trillion. ) system was notfunctioning as intended. The review made a host of other equallyimportant revelations. In short, an elaborate system was in place thatdid not function in keeping with its own rules. And worse still, itsbenefits for the students were nil. Skrtic's Review There have been many critics of special education and of trackingthat leads to homogenous homogenous - homogeneous groupings (Glass, 1983; Lipsky & Gartner,1989). But perhaps the most comprehensive review of literature (and acritique of regular and special education practices) was conducted byThomas Skrtic (1991). He reviewed all the literature (both pro and con PRO AND CON. For and against. For example, affidavits are taken pro and con. )on the regular education initiative (REI) and on special educationeffectiveness. Skrtic's striking discovery was that althoughresearchers and other professionals substantially agreed on what theempirical data showed, they disagreed over what to do about it. Forexample, no one claimed that significant benefits were found as a resultof special education treatment. Yet many insisted that present practiceshould be continued, largely on the grounds that resources were neededif the acknowledged problems were to be solved. NEW MODELS OF SPECIAL EDUCATION I do not argue here that the deficiencies in special educationpractice, which are also tied to deficiencies in regular education,should result in the abandonment of special education services. I knowthat some small proportion of the student population will manifest sometrue disabilities. I believe there can be no justification for theabnormally large numbers of students classified with learningdisabilities or with mild mental retardation. Yet there are valid waysto diagnose the smaller number of true impediments (Feuerstein, 1979,1980; Lidz, 1987). This means that there is a need for diagnosticians.There are also systematic approaches to pedagogy that produce meaningfulacademic gains for the students. In other words, I believe that there ismeaningful work to be done in special education. What we need is aparadigm change. Feuerstein's Approach Recognizing that there are other approaches to the solution of theproblem of how to improve special education practice, I will useFeuerstein's (1980) work as the model of what has to be done. Indoing this, I am mindful especially of the needs of cultural minoritygroups who have been most harmed by existing practice. I believe thatapproaches similar to that of Feuerstein offer the most valid, useful,and beneficial instruction. Over the past 30 years or so, Reuven Feuerstein, an Israelipsychologist, and his colleagues have developed a clinically grounded,articulated, and theoretically elaborated diagnostic and mediational("remedial") system. Thousands of hours of clinicalobservations of low-performing learners under a schema derived from thecognitive psychology of Jean Piaget, have generated a cognitive map--anarticulation of the parameters by which mental acts can be analyzed.Associated with this map and derived from the clinical observation is alisting of a "set of deficient cognitive functions." Thesedeficient functions are akin to habits that impede efficientfunctioning. In addition to the diagnostic side of the approach, Feuerstein andhis associates have developed a highly articulated set of mediation("teaching") strategies. Thirty years of clinical experiencewith these strategies have yielded powerful ways to change theapproaches of learners in a meaningful, long-lasting way. Naturally,much more empirical research is needed for a full validation of thisimportant work. However, there are few if any competitors for the systemthat is called Dynamic Assessment (diagnosis) and InstrumentalEnrichment (mediation or "remediation"). Special Education Imperatives Without going into details about Feuerstein's system, Ibelieve it represents the elements and the outlook that must be presentin any services in assessment and special education, if benefit tochildren is to be the main criterion for evaluation of the services. 1. We must assume that children's thinking can be changedsignificantly. We do not know their upper limits. 2. We are interested in the processes of thinking and how they canbe changed, rather than in the product for comparative purposes (rankingand classification). 3. We must require that any system that is employed be able toproduce significant and meaningful change in students' cognitiveand academic functioning. 4. We should, given the existence of a successful system, have atheoretical explanation of it. CONCLUSION The cultural diversity and uniqueness of different ethnic groupscan easily be documented (Cohen cohenor kohen(Hebrew: “priest”) Jewish priest descended from Zadok (a descendant of Aaron), priest at the First Temple of Jerusalem. The biblical priesthood was hereditary and male. , 1969, 1971; Cole, Gay, Glick, &Sharp, 1971; Hilliard, 1976, 1983; Levi-Strauss, 1966; Smith, 1978,1979; Smitherman, 1977; Tenhouton, 1971; Turner, 1949). Culturallysophisticated observers can explain much of the unavoidable bias inmeasurement and assessment. The abuses of treatment and assessment inthe case of ethnic minorities can also be easily documented (Chase,1977; Deparle, 1990; Gould, 1981; Kamin, 1974). Yet, the equity issuesin special education services have less to do with bias and fairnessthan with pedagogical validity (Hilliard, 1979, 1983, 1984). Thequestion is, Can learning impediments be overcome or eliminated,allowing the formerly impaired student to perform significantly betterthan he or she would have without the services, or allowing the studentto perform well in the mainstream academic program? We should eitherinitiate systems such as Dynamic Assessment and Instrumental Enrichmentto produce valid beneficial results or, in the absence of a validcompeting system, terminate the special services altogether. Custodialcare hardly justifies the extensive and complicated instructional systemthat has emerged. African Americans and other ethnic minority groups have the sameneeds for special services For Special Services, first published in 1982, was the second novel by John Gardner featuring Ian Fleming's secret agent, James Bond. Carrying the Glidrose Publications copyright, it was first published in the United Kingdom by Jonathan Cape and in the United States by as do all others. However, invalid servicesor even valid services that fail to produce benefits for the childrenare an unnecessary burden on the children and their families.Appropriate services are those that are pedagogically ped��a��gog��ic? also ped��a��gog��i��caladj.1. Of, relating to, or characteristic of pedagogy.2. Characterized by pedantic formality: a haughty, pedagogic manner. valid (which alsoassumes that they are culturally sensitive and salient). Applying the benefits criterion in the evaluation of specialservices, including assessment, should offer a welcome opportunity forprofessionals to institute services with a scientifically valid basis. REFERENCES Chase, A. (1977). The legac.,v of Malthus: The social cost ofscientific racism. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Cohen, R. (1969). Conceptual styles, culture conflict, andnon-verbal tests of intelligence. American Anthropologist, 71(5),328-857. Cohen, R. ( 1971 ). The influence of conceptual rule sets onmeasures of learning ability. In M. Tumin (Ed.), Race and Intelligence.Washington, DC: American Anthropological Association. Cole, M., Gay, J., Glick, J., & Sharp, D.W. (1971). Thecultural context of learning and thinking: An exploration inexperimental anthropology. New York: Basic Books. Deparle, J. (1990, November 30) An architect of the Reagan visionplunges into inquiry on race and I.Q. New York Times, p. A1. Feuerstein, R. (1979). The dynamic assessment of retardedperformers: The learning potential assessment device. Baltimore:University Park Press. Feuerstein, R. (1980). Instrumental enrichment. Baltimore:University Park Press. Glass, G.V. (1983). Effectiveness of special education. PolicyStudies Review, 2 (1), University of Kansas The University of Kansas (often referred to as KU or just Kansas) is an institution of higher learning in Lawrence, Kansas. The main campus resides atop Mount Oread. . Gould, S.J. (1981). Themismeasure Mis`meas´urev. t. 1. To measure or estimate incorrectly. of man, New York: W.W. Norton. Heller, K.A., Holtzman, W.H., & Messick, S. (Eds.). (1982).Placing children in special education: A strategy for equity.Washington, DC:National Academy Press. Hilliard, A.G. III. (1976). Alternatives to IQ testing: An approachto the identification of "gifted" minority children. Finalreport to the California State Department of Education, SpecialEducation Support Unit. New York: Columbia University. (ERICClearinghouse on Early Childhood Education, ED 146009) Hilliard, A.G. III. (1979). Standardization and cultural bias asimpediments to the scientific study and validation of intelligence.Journal of Research and Development in Education, 12(2), 49-58. Hilliard, A.G. III. (1983). Psychological factors associated withlanguage in the education of the African-American child. Journal ofNegro Education The Journal of Negro Education (JNE) is a refereed scholarly periodical founded at Howard University in 1932 to fill the need for a scholarly journal that would identify and define the problems that characterized the education of Black people in the United States and elsewhere, , 52 (1), 24-34. Hilliard, A.G. III. (1984). I.Q. testing as the emperor's newclothes Emperor’s New Clothessupposedly invisible to unworthy people; in reality, nonexistent. [Dan. Lit.: Andersen’s Fairy Tales]See : IllusionEmperor’s New Clothes : A critique of bias in mental testing. In C. Reynolds & R.E.Brown (Eds.), Perspective on bias in mental testing (pp. 139-169). NewYork: Plenum Press. Hilliard, A.G. III. (Ed.). (1987, April-July). Testing AfricanAmerican students [Special Issue]. Negro Education Review, 38(2-3).(Also see reissue, 1992, by Southern Education Foundation, 135 AuburnAve., 2nd Floor, Atlanta, GA 30303.) Kamin, L. (1974). The science and politics of IQ. New York: Wiley. Levi-Strauss, C. (1966). The savage mind. Chicago: University ofChicago Press The University of Chicago Press is the largest university press in the United States. It is operated by the University of Chicago and publishes a wide variety of academic titles, including The Chicago Manual of Style, dozens of academic journals, including . Lidz, C.S. (Ed.). (1987). Dynamic assessment: An interactionalapproach to evaluating learning potential. New York: Guilford Press. Lipsky, D.K., & Gartner, A. (1989). Beyond separate education:Quality education for all. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes. Skrtic, T.M. (1991). The special education paradox: Equity as theway to excellence. Harvard Educational Review The Harvard Educational Review is an interdisciplinary scholarly journal of opinion and research dealing with education, published by the Harvard Education Publishing Group. The journal was founded in 1930 with circulation to policymakers, researchers, administrators, and teachers. , 61(2), 148-206, Smith, E.A. (1978). The retention of the phonological pho��nol��o��gy?n. pl. pho��nol��o��gies1. The study of speech sounds in language or a language with reference to their distribution and patterning and to tacit rules governing pronunciation.2. , phonemic pho��ne��mic?adj.1. Of or relating to phonemes.2. Of or relating to phonemics.3. Serving to distinguish phonemes or distinctive features. ,and morphophonemic features of Africa in Afro-American ebonics (SeminarSeries Paper #40). Fullerton, CA: Department of Linguistics Noun 1. department of linguistics - the academic department responsible for teaching and research in linguisticslinguistics departmentacademic department - a division of a school that is responsible for a given subject , CaliforniaState University Enrollment at Fullerton. Smith, E.A. (1979). A diagnostic instrument for assessing thephonological competence and performance of the inner-cityAfro-American child. (Seminar Series Paper #41). Fullerton, CA:Department of Linguistics, California State University at Fullerton. Smitherman, G. (1977). Talkin' and testifyin': The lan-guage of Black America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Tenhouton, W. (1971,July). Cognitive styles and the social order,Los Angeles: University of California The University of California has a combined student body of more than 191,000 students, over 1,340,000 living alumni, and a combined systemwide and campus endowment of just over $7.3 billion (8th largest in the United States). at Los Angeles, (Distributed byNational Technical Information Service, U. S. Department of Commerce,5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22151) TURNER, L. (1949) Africanisms in the Gullah dialect. Chicago:University of Chicago Press. About the Author Asa G. Hilliard III is the Fuller E. Callaway Professor in theDepartment of Educational Foundation at Georgia State University HistoryGeorgia State University was founded in 1913 as the Georgia School of Technology's "School of Commerce." The school focused on what was called "the new science of business. ,Atlanta