The management of change: archaeology and planning.

The management of change: archaeology and planning. IntroductionFor over a century there have been arrangements in England for the'scheduling' (i.e. identification for protection) of ancientmonuments. Central government consent is required for any works toScheduled sites or monuments. Essentially sites and monuments have to beof national archaeological significance to merit scheduling;non-statutory criteria have been defined for that purpose and over13,000 have so far been scheduled. These represent only a smallproportion of known archaeological sites, the total of which in Englandis currently put at over 600,000. English Heritage English Heritage is a non-departmental public body of the United Kingdom government (Department for Culture, Media and Sport) with a broad remit of managing the historic environment of England. It was set up under the terms of the National Heritage Act 1983. are currently engagedon a comprehensive survey programme, known as the Monuments ProtectionProgramme, which is expected to result in a significant increase in thenumbers of monuments qualifying for scheduling, perhaps raising thetotal to some 60,000 by the end of the decade.Archaeology archaeology(ärkēŏl`əjē)[Gr.,=study of beginnings], a branch of anthropology that seeks to document and explain continuity and change and similarities and differences among human cultures. and planningIn addition to statutory designation, archaeological sites, whetherscheduled or not, are a material consideration in the planning process.The UK Government has recently reviewed arrangements for the protectionof archaeological sites and monuments in England. The outcome was a newand comprehensive statement of policy, Archaeology and planning,published in November 1990 as Planning Policy Guidance Note 16 (PPG PPG Points Per Game (basketball player statistic)PPG Power Play Goals (hockey)PPG Planning Policy Guidance (UK)PPG Programmable Pulse GeneratorPPG Power Puff Girls 16).Similar documents have been issued for Wales Wales,Welsh Cymru, western peninsula and political division (principality) of Great Britain (1991 pop. 2,798,200), 8,016 sq mi (20,761 sq km), west of England; politically united with England since 1536. The capital is Cardiff. and are proposed forScotland. The statement is prepared for the guidance of localauthorities, developers and archaeologists Archaeology is a discipline that was virtually unknown until the 19th century. Archaeology, originally an amateur pastime, is becoming increasingly popular, and it is now possible for archaeologists to become minor celebrities as a result of media exposure. and is particularlyconcerned with the need to ensure that local planning authorities givedue recognition to the importance of archaeological remains whenconsidering proposals for new development. It therefore provides apolicy framework within which local authorities may exercise theirpowers and also within which the Secretary of State for the Environment The Secretary of State for the Environment was a UK cabinet position, responsible for the Department of the Environment. It was created by Edward Heath as a combination of the Ministry of Housing and Local Government and the Ministry of Public Building and Works on October will consider cases of national importance which come to him fordecision and other cases which come to him on appeal.PPG 16 makes it clear that there should be a presumption A conclusion made as to the existence or nonexistence of a fact that must be drawn from other evidence that is admitted and proven to be true. A Rule of Law.If certain facts are established, a judge or jury must assume another fact that the law recognizes as a logical in favour ofthe preservation of nationally important remains but also stresses thatthe desirability of preserving ancient monuments is a materialconsideration which the planning system See spreadsheet and financial planning system. must take into account and weighagainst other considerations, in deciding proposals for new development.This effectively means that those monuments which are not scheduled willdepend for their protection on the operation of the English planningsystem. The role of the local authorities is two-fold:the assessment of the implications for any archaeological site whendevelopment proposals are put forward by prospective developers;in the preparation of development plans which should identifynationally important monuments and include general policies for theprotection of other monuments.The central message of PPG 16 is the crucial importance of earlyassessment of a site's archaeological significance and of earlydiscussions between the local authority, archaeologists and developers.When such assessment indicates the likely presence of importantarchaeological remains, the planning authority may require the developerto commission a field evaluation of the site before reaching itsdecision on new development proposals. This evaluation will generally becarried out at the developer's expense.Once the facts have been established it is normally for the localplanning authority A Local Planning Authority is the local authority or council that is empowered by law to exercise planning functions for a particular area of the United Kingdom.The authority is often the local Borough or District Council. to decide whether development may proceed and anumber of options are available:in the most important cases, permission for development may need tobe refused if an archaeological site is to be adequately protected;in other cases modification of the development proposal may benecessary so as to cause minimal disturbance DISTURBANCE, torts. A wrong done to an incorporeal hereditament, by hindering or disquieting the owner in the enjoyment of it. Finch. L. 187; 3 Bl. Com. 235; 1 Swift's Dig. 522; Com. Dig. Action upon the case for a disturbance, Pleader, 3 I 6; 1 Serg. & Rawle, 298. to the archaeologicalremains;the excavation excavationIn archaeology, the exposure, recording, and recovery of buried material remains. The techniques employed vary by the type of site, but all forms of archaeological excavation require great skill and careful preparation. of the site before it is destroyed by developmentshould be the least preferred option but where it is the right solution,it will normally be for the developer to make provision for theexcavation, the archiving of the data and the publication of theresults.PPG 16 therefore makes the case and outlines the procedures for thepreservation of archaeological remains whilst recognizing that theindividual merits in each instance must be assessed by taking intoaccount the archaeological policies in detailed development plans,together with all other relevant policies and material considerations,including the intrinsic importance of the remains and weighing theseagainst the need for the proposed development.The importance of the PPG is that it places archaeology firmly on thecentre stage of the planning system along with other materialconsiderations.National funding policiesBy confirming archaeology as a material consideration in the planningprocess it now has parity parityor space parity,in physics, quantity that refers to the relationship between an object or process and the image that it can produce in a mirror. with other planning constraints and enablesfull consideration of the case for preserving archaeological remainstogether with local responsibility for funding excavations which mayultimately be unavoidable. At the same time the importance has beenrecognized of maintaining central funding for archaeology to cover thosesituations where funding from developers is inappropriate. The areas towhich central funding will be directed have been defined by EnglishHeritage in a strategy document for the next decade, Exploring our past(1991). They include:financial support for regional records of archaeological sites andtheir adequate staffing together with the preparation of strategies thatare designed to facilitate both the preservation of archaeological sitesand economic development from a position of knowledge;financial provision for those archaeology projects necessitated bynatural causes or where no other source of funding is forthcoming;financial provision for the production of academic syntheses (both ofpublished and unpublished projects) so as to ensure that the work fundedby developers is integrated into a framework of knowledge about ourpast. Considerable professional concern has been expressed about thisissue and experience elsewhere has demonstrated the need for such workto be funded within an academic framework.financial support to promote the public enjoyment and to advancetheir knowledge of our archaeological heritage.The revised European ConventionA European framework for the principles embodied em��bod��y?tr.v. em��bod��ied, em��bod��y��ing, em��bod��ies1. To give a bodily form to; incarnate.2. To represent in bodily or material form: in PPG 16 has beenprovided by a revision of the European Convention on the Protection ofthe Archaeological Heritage (see O'Keefe, this volume: 406-13, andTrotzig, this volume: 414-15).The revised European Convention together with PPG 16 reflect thedevelopment and maturing of archaeological practice in Europe over thepast two decades. A Committee to be set up by the Council of Europe Council of Europe,international organization founded in 1949 to promote greater unity within Europe and to safeguard its political and cultural heritage by promoting human rights and democracy. The council is headquartered in Strasbourg, France. willreport periodically to the Committee of Ministers on the application ofthe revised Convention in those states in which it has been ratified rat��i��fy?tr.v. rat��i��fied, rat��i��fy��ing, rat��i��fiesTo approve and give formal sanction to; confirm. See Synonyms at approve. .Several questions remain to be addressed from our domesticperspective, principally the management of the urban archaeologicalresource and the management of historic landscapes including WorldHeritage Sites.Managing the urban archaeological resourceManaging the urban archaeological resource involves dealing with someof the largest, most complex and most important archaeological monumentsin the country. Furthermore, this management necessarily takes placelargely in major centres of contemporary population and activity, withall which that implies in terms of the practicalities of conservation.Thus, the management of the urban archaeological resource is anexceptionally challenging and complex task. However, because of therichness and intrinsic interest of that resource, and its locationwithin and beneath modern centres of population, management of the urbanarchaeological resource has the potential to make a great contributionto urban conservation, to our understanding of the past and to thepublic's knowledge and enjoyment of the urban environment and itshistory.Effective management of the urban archaeological resource requiresthe following:FrameworksClear frameworks (legal, planning, policy, academic) are essentialfor a structured and consistent approach to the urban archaeologicalresource. These frameworks operate within the broader context ofprevailing opinions and circumstances and it is also important that agood consensual CONSENSUAL, civil law. This word is applied to designate one species of contract known in the civil laws; these contracts derive their name from the consent of the parties which is required in their formation, as they cannot exist without such consent. 2. framework is established to resolve conflicts ofinterest.InformationGood decision-making requires information to be readily available tothose who have to take or to contribute to decisions affecting theresource.ExpertiseUrban archaeology Urban archaeology is a sub discipline of archaeology specialising in the material past of towns and cities where long-term human habitation has often left a rich record of the past.Humans produce waste. Large concentrations of humans produce large concentrations of waste. is a specialized spe��cial��ize?v. spe��cial��ized, spe��cial��iz��ing, spe��cial��iz��esv.intr.1. To pursue a special activity, occupation, or field of study.2. field, and the management of theurban archaeological resource requires appropriately qualified andexperienced staff.ResourcesResources are needed to support the development of frameworks, thegathering of information and the maintenance and development ofexpertise; to support appropriate archaeological input todecision-making affecting the resource; and to carry out particularpieces of management action.The objectives of archaeological protection in the urban context arethe same as those of archaeological protection generally -- to secureprotection for monuments and remains of national importance, which mustinclude a representative sample of those remains which arecharacteristic of urban contexts. The difference, in terms of policiesfor protection, between urban contexts and some (although by no meansall) aspects of the rural archaeological resource lies in two areas: thegreater difficulty of identifying which parts of the urbanarchaeological resource most merit protection (i.e. the difficulty ofselecting the 'representative sample') and the question ofwhich form of designation is most appropriate for archaeological remainsin an urban context, given the particular patterns of propertyownership, land use and economic activity in modern towns. It should bestressed that the second issue is of lesser importance. Greaterdifficulties lie in the area of defining and assessing the resource interms of what level of protection different components of it merit. Thisin turn relies on the important task of successfully establishing therequired databases and academic frameworks.Conflicts of interest will arise between the need to preservenationally important archaeological remains and the need to allow ourtowns to thrive and develop. Historic urban areas cannot be fossilized fos��sil��ize?v. fos��sil��ized, fos��sil��iz��ing, fos��sil��iz��esv.tr.1. To convert into a fossil.2. To make outmoded or inflexible with time; antiquate.v.intr. ,but equally, economic growth must not rob the future of its past. Weview the English Heritage role as being to assist in reconciling thelegitimate tensions that can occur between these two objectives so as tofacilitate the achievement of both.Both scheduling and the planning process will have a role to playwithin integrated strategies for achieving the protection of urbanarchaeological remains. The question of the precise mix of the twoinstruments and the relationship between the way each is applied inparticular circumstances, will depend on judgements taken within theframework of urban assessments and strategies that will be commissionedfor our historic towns. For remains of national importance where thecase for scheduling can be made with reasonable certainty it remains thebest framework within which to control their management. For remains ofless than national importance PPG 16 has placed archaeology as amaterial consideration in the planning process so that the preservationof remains may receive due consideration. A balanced judgement in thelight of circumstances will define the right solution for the protectionof particular towns and cities.PPG 16 states that where nationally important remains, whetherscheduled or not, and their settings are affected by proposeddevelopment there should be a presumption in favour of theirpreservation. In order to reconcile potential tensions between thatobjective and economic development it is important to reduce uncertaintyconcerning the presence or absence of archaeological remains to aminimum. This is to the advantage of planners, developers andarchaeologists alike and should do much to reduce the potential for aconflict of interests. English Heritage has therefore begun a review andsynthesis of our current understanding of England's historic towns.This will involve the drafting of definitions of different urban typesand areas in an attempt to identify various classes of urban centre,judged by function, status or period. It is apparent that to effectivelyintegrate archaeology into the urban planning urban planning:see city planning. urban planningPrograms pursued as a means of improving the urban environment and achieving certain social and economic objectives. process our historic townswill require their own strategy documents, giving advice to planners,developers and archaeologists alike and tailored to the specific needsof each city. Ideally, a strategic plan is required for each historictown. In practice, priority for detailed work must be given, to the 30or so towns which have chronological chron��o��log��i��cal? also chron��o��log��icadj.1. Arranged in order of time of occurrence.2. Relating to or in accordance with chronology. depth, good survival and obviousdevelopment pressure. Less intensive work must also be undertaken onother towns and the programme will therefore proceed at these twolevels.Within this framework English Heritage will direct resources towardsthe following activities:i Urban archaeological databasesWe are currently defining standards with the Royal Commission on theHistorical Monuments of England The Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England (RCHME) was the body formerly responsible for documenting the records of English Historical Monuments. It was merged with English Heritage on 1 April 1999.[1] Notes1. (RCHME RCHME Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England (UK)) for urban archaeologicaldatabases. They will be computerized databases of information about theurban archaeological resource and will normally be held and maintainedin the planning departments of the local authority in relevant historiccities (with facilities for data exchange with the County Sites andMonuments Record and the National Archaeological Record The archaeological record is a term used in archaeology to denote all archaeological evidence, including the physical remains of past human activities which archaeologists seek out and record in an attempt to analyze and reconstruct the past. ).ii. Urban archaeological assessmentsThese will be documents which synthesize To create a whole or complete unit from parts or components. See synthesis. and summarize sum��ma��rize?intr. & tr.v. sum��ma��rized, sum��ma��riz��ing, sum��ma��riz��esTo make a summary or make a summary of.sum our currentknowledge and understanding of the archaeological resource of particularurban places. Such assessments will clearly draw on the 'urbanarchaeological database'. However, these assessments will be'point in time' studies and essentially static (untilup-dated) whereas the underlying database should be continuously addedto and enhanced as new information becomes available. Urbanarchaeological assessments will provide a basis for 'urban strategydocuments' but will not in themselves constitute strategydocuments.iii. Urban strategy documentsThese will be documents which set out strategies for managing theurban archaeological resource of particular towns or cities. They willbe based on 'urban archaeological assessments' but will alsoneed to take into account such factors as development policies, planningproposals and so forth. 'Strategy documents' will thereforerequire periodic updating, probably on a shorter cycle than that forupdating 'assessment studies'. The recent York Development andarchaeology study (1991) published jointly by York City Council andEnglish Heritage is an example of an 'urban strategydocument'. Similar pilot projects have been undertaken in Durhamand Cirencester.Landscapes of historic importanceTurning to the countryside, the identification and conservation ofthe historic element of the countryside is a matter of increasing publicinterest and importance. It was in this context that English Heritagewas invited in the Government White Paper This Common Inheritance (1990)to consider the production of a list or register of landscapes ofhistoric importance. English Heritage set out a response to thisinvitation in a consultation paper (October 1991) which included theimportant statement that policies for the countryside 'mustrecognise the inevitability of change, and the need for the thoughtfuldirection and management of necessary changes in order to avoid sterile sterile/ster��ile/ (ster��il)1. unable to produce offspring.2. aseptic.ster��ileadj.1. Not producing or incapable of producing offspring.2. fossilization'. The general conclusion reached as a result of theconsultation process is that this principle is acceptable but that itneeds careful expression and it needs to be made clear that there areelements which should not be allowed to give way to change.It is equally clear that designations for the protection of'historic landscapes' are already proliferating Proliferating is the multiplication of a certain thing. Often it is used as a biological term to describe the increase of cells due to cell division.Look under proliferate or proliferation for more details. in the CountyPlanning process without a coherent framework. These designations mayhave a restrictive role in the planning process but they also influencethe positive management of the areas concerned. It is clear that theprimary level of any historic landscapes register should be at localauthority (at present County Council) level where they can build onexisting developments and have a practical function. Coordination of themethodology used to define such areas, together with some attempt torank them according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. importance is seen as a matter of priority whichwill need to be addressed by central Government over the next year.The World Heritage ListThe 1972 UNESCO UNESCO:see United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. UNESCOin full United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Convention for the Protection of the World Culturaland Natural Heritage came into force in 1975 and was ratified by theUnited Kingdom in 1984. It is concerned with the identification,protection, conservation and presentation of those parts of the heritagewhich, because of their exceptional characteristics and qualities, areconsidered to be of outstanding universal value.In United Kingdom planning and conservation law and advice there isno reference to World Heritage Sites. Therefore, the inclusion of a siteon the World Heritage List is not of itself an instrument of planningcontrol, but it does signal the particular importance of the Site as amaterial factor to betaken into account by a local planning authority in determining aplanning application or by the Secretary of State for the Environment indetermining a case on appeal or following call-in. It is recognized thatto be on the list a World Heritage Site has been identified as ofinternational importance not only by the UK Government but also by abody of international experts. In any hierarchy of status given to partsof the historic environment it is reasonable to assume that this must bethe highest level that can be awarded and this has been recognised inappeal decisions by the Secretary of State for the Environment.Protection from development is only one answer to securing the futureof World Heritage Sites. More positive management measures may also berequired. Experience has shown that World Heritage Sites are subject toa variety of development and visitor pressures. These problems in thecase of the Avebury World Heritage Site have been faced through themedium of a management plan to which interested parties directlyconcerned with land-use have contributed. While the area is subject tothe usual planning controls and a number of statutory designations forconservation of the built and natural environment, a co-ordinatedframework for planning and positive management is lacking. The purposeof the management plan is therefore to establish a strategy forcoordinated management, although in a nonstatutory form. It is not theintention that this strategy should usurp u��surp?v. u��surped, u��surp��ing, u��surpsv.tr.1. To seize and hold (the power or rights of another, for example) by force and without legal authority. See Synonyms at appropriate.2. the clear roles of the localauthorities but that the principles and mechanisms outlined in it willassist in communication and decision making within the World HeritageSite.It is in the nature of the exercise that although English Heritagetook the initiative in the formulation of the management strategy, theinitiative was in partnership with the other interested partiesincluding the principal landowners, all of whom accepted that themanagement strategy must be based on a broad consensus. Surveys werecommissioned through Wiltshire County Council on the archaeology of thearea and its present condition. The management strategy thus starts witha consistent archaeological data-base. The Wiltshire County Councilsurvey also gathered together data on the other conservation constraintsin the World Heritage Site namely details of the Listed Buildings,Conservation Areas, Sites of Special Scientific Interest, the Area ofOutstanding Natural Beauty and other associated matters. EnglishHeritage and the County and District Councils commissioned a survey oftraffic on the roads within the World Heritage Site and of the visitornumbers. The three main conservation land-managers in the area are theNational Trust, English Heritage and English Nature English Nature was the United Kingdom government agency that promoted the conservation of wildlife, geology and wild places throughout England between 1990 and 2006. It was a non-departmental public body funded by the Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs (DEFRA) and , all of whichproduced statements for inclusion in the plan. The National Trustproduced a detailed Management Plan for the property that it owns withinthe World Heritage Site. English Heritage manages sites underguardianship deeds and has produced a Management Plan for these. EnglishNature as part of the notification process for the Sites of SpecialScientific Interest has produced a schedule of Potentially DamagingOperations. Finally, the local authority structure and local plans whichmainly concern this area were integrated with the document. Avebury isto date the only World Heritage Site for which such a plan has beendevised but the strategy employed in its formulation could well berepeated in relation to other sites which have been designated onaccount of their high-status archaeological content and have particularmanagement problems.ConclusionThe purpose of this paper has been to chart recent developments inthe management of archaeological sites and landscapes both in thecountryside and the town. Several trends are apparent. First, therecognition that a centralized cen��tral��ize?v. cen��tral��ized, cen��tral��iz��ing, cen��tral��iz��esv.tr.1. To draw into or toward a center; consolidate.2. body operating a specifically ancientmonuments legislation is no longer adequate on its own to ensure theprotection of our archaeological heritage. This is linked with theemergence of local planning authorities, working in partnership withEnglish Heritage and Central Government, as important factors in theprotection of archaeological sites and landscapes through the planningprocess. Secondly, there is general recognition that archaeologybecoming a material consideration in the planning process brings theneed for those considerations to be weighed in the balance against otherlegitimate economic and social factors. This is to be welcomed as anindication of the growing importance and maturity of the subject.Finally, for landscapes of historic importance, including World HeritageSites, the key to success lies in multidisciplinary and proactivemanagement plans based on local and national consensus. The route tosuccessful management by these means may be more complex but it is asurer way of resolving tensions at an early stage and ensuring that theend result carries with it a broad acceptance. That integration of theinterests of archaeologists and historians with those of otherdisciplines and a clear definition of organizational roles will providethe key to future success.