The impact of changing culture in higher education on the person-organization fit, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment of college faculty.

The impact of changing culture in higher education on the person-organization fit, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment of college faculty. ABSTRACT The purpose of this research was to analyze the impact of culturalchange on the person-organization fit, job satisfaction, andorganizational commitment of faculty at a small private college. Theconclusion of this mixed-model study suggests that the movement of thissubject college administration to a competitive, business-like model mayhave negatively affected the commitment of the faculty to theinstitution, but has not reduced the satisfaction they find inherent intheir roles of teachers and researchers. INTRODUCTION The field of higher education recently has been undergoing a periodof rapid change and many colleges and universities have been compelledto alter their cultures in attempts to survive this change.Historically, these colleges and universities occupied a unique place inAmerican society. Their professed pro��fess?v. pro��fessed, pro��fess��ing, pro��fess��esv.tr.1. To affirm openly; declare or claim: "a physics major goals were to produce and promulgate To officially announce, to publish, to make known to the public; to formally announce a statute or a decision by a court. knowledge, and their means of doing so were unchallenged by other groupsin the culture. Largely immune from market forces, colleges anduniversities were able to fulfill their multiple purposes of education,scholarship, and service. The substantial social spillovers provided bycolleges and universities justified government and nonprofit A corporation or an association that conducts business for the benefit of the general public without shareholders and without a profit motive.Nonprofits are also called not-for-profit corporations. Nonprofit corporations are created according to state law. support forthese institutions, and the institutions relied on these additionalfunds to supplement tuition revenues. Gumport (2000) describededucational institutions as social entities, geared toward thecultivation of citizens and the preservation of knowledge and, fordecades, the culture of higher education reflected this quasi-publicrole. For higher education administrators to successfully adapt tochange, it is important that they understand the historical culture ofhigher education and the changes that have occurred to that culture. Theculture of an environment is comprised of the values of the individualswithin it (Holland, 1973), but generalizing about the personalities andvalue sets of the diverse members of a college community is difficult.In fact, Bess (1984) claimed that any culture comprised of scholars isprecarious at best and Weick (1984) argued that the very term"community of scholars Noun 1. community of scholars - the body of individuals holding advanced academic degreesprofession - the body of people in a learned occupation; "the news spread rapidly through the medical profession"; "they formed a community of scientists" " might be a contradiction in terms Noun 1. contradiction in terms - (logic) a statement that is necessarily false; "the statement `he is brave and he is not brave' is a contradiction"contradictionlogic - the branch of philosophy that analyzes inference (p.15). Despite differences among individual faculty members and amonginstitutions, though, the shared goal of creating and disseminating dis��sem��i��nate?v. dis��sem��i��nat��ed, dis��sem��i��nat��ing, dis��sem��i��natesv.tr.1. To scatter widely, as in sowing seed.2. knowledge generally gave rise to cultures prizing freedom, peer review,shared governance, and the "discipline of dissent An explicit disagreement by one or more judges with the decision of the majority on a case before them.A dissent is often accompanied by a written dissenting opinion, and the terms dissent and dissenting opinion are used interchangeably. " (Hamilton,2000, p. 12). Faculty members, despite their differences, also sharedcommon personality traits. Lindholm (2003) found that most facultymembers are most content in institutional environments in which they arefree to work independently, remain private, and pursue their ownintellectual interests. Faculty motivation was driven intrinsically bythe beliefs in the shared values the faculty members held with theinstitution in which they worked (Blackburn & Lawrence, 1995). Market pressures, however, have changed the world that many facultymembers occupy. The insular insular/in��su��lar/ (-sdbobr-ler) pertaining to the insula or to an island, as the islands of Langerhans. in��su��laradj.Of or being an isolated tissue or island of tissue. world of scholarship and teaching many ofthem entered as instructors has become one of accountability and rapidevolution. Increased competition has forced institutions to be moremarket sensitive in the production of their educational products, andfaculty can no longer produce knowledge without consideration of itsimmediate applicability and market appeal (Birnbaum, 2000; Keller,1983). Many colleges and universities can no longer afford programs thatare not popular with students and have moved to develop only those newprograms that the market will reward. Government agencies requireaccountability and businesses demand training in workplace skills.Students have become market savvy consumers (Birnbaum, 2000), financialsupport from the government and grants has diminished, and requiredinvestments in technology have pushed many institutions toward thefinancial brink (Rowley, Lujan, & Dolence, 1998). The public'sexpectations of higher education have increased at the same time theresources of the higher education institutions have become scarcer(Association of American Colleges and Universities This article or section is written like an .Please help [ rewrite this article] from a neutral point of view.Mark blatant advertising for , using . [AAC &U], 2002).Concurrently, competition from online providers of education andcorporate universities has challenged the traditional position ofcolleges and universities as monopolies in the knowledge business. Bynecessity, academic institutions have responded to these combinedpressures by changing the manner in which they do business. Colleges anduniversities today are likely to adopt the practices of for-profitbusinesses in attempts to become market sensitive (Birnbaum, 2000). In many cases, the changes adopted by higher education institutionshave fundamentally altered faculty work lives. Many faculty membersselected both their occupations and their institutions prior to thechanges in the field. Some resist the call for accountability, andexpress concern not only for the viability of their particular programsbut also for the missions of their institutions (Hamilton, 2000).Perhaps more important in terms of motivation is the impact this shiftmight have had on the institutional fit enjoyed by faculty members. Ifthe faculty members selected their careers and institutions originallybecause they believed they provided good fit, what happened to thislevel of fit after the institutions changed? Person-organization fit (P-O fit) has been the subject of muchresearch in the past 20 years. Fit, measured by its various constructs,has been associated with employee turnover, satisfaction, and jobperformance (Chatman, 1989). The strongest correlations exist betweenP-O fit and employee turnover: In most organizations, the employee whofeels that he or she does not fit simply leaves to find a betterperson-value congruence con��gru��ence?n.1. a. Agreement, harmony, conformity, or correspondence.b. An instance of this: "What an extraordinary congruence of genius and era" elsewhere (O'Reilly, Chatman, &Caldwell, 1991). What happens, though, when job flexibility is low? For faculty inhigher education, the changes that have occurred within their owninstitutions have been matched by changes in those of competing collegesand universities. Unlike the typical business employee, who can applyhis or her trade in a variety of industrial settings, the trainedacademic has little option but to remain in a collegiate col��le��giate?adj.1. Of, relating to, or held to resemble a college.2. Of, for, or typical of college students.3. Of or relating to a collegiate church. setting. Sincemost employers within this setting simultaneously changed in the samemanner, the experienced faculty member may find himself or herself withnowhere to go. This lack of professional flexibility (in many casescombined with tenure considerations) often prevents a faculty memberfrom leaving an institution--even if dissatisfied dis��sat��is��fied?adj.Feeling or exhibiting a lack of contentment or satisfaction.dis��satis��fied with his or her newrole within it. If the members of the faculty believe that the culturalshift that has occurred in many institutions reflects values that are nolonger congruent con��gru��ent?adj.1. Corresponding; congruous.2. Mathematicsa. Coinciding exactly when superimposed: congruent triangles.b. with their own, their job satisfaction, motivation, andorganizational commitment might suffer. The implications of that shifton the students, academic communities, and the role of higher educationin society are dire. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Unprecedented changes have been forced upon many U.S. colleges anduniversities within the past 10 years (Austin, 2002; Birnbaum, 2000;Gumport, 2000; Rowley, Dolence, & Lujan, 1997). Many faculty memberscommitted to these institutions prior to these changes and no longerhold values that match those of their employers. If faculty members nolonger believe that there is a congruence of values between themselvesand their institutions, their behaviors may be affected. Much of thefaculty job is loosely defined, and relies upon volunteer effort andintrinsic motivation (Locke, Fitzpatrick, & White, 1984). Will thechanges in the culture of higher education impact these sources ofmotivation? The problem to be addressed in this study is the potential changein value congruence of college faculty following organizational change.Since the emergence of the university system in the United States United States,officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. , thesuccessful education of students and the proliferation proliferation/pro��lif��er��a��tion/ (pro-lif?er-a��shun) the reproduction or multiplication of similar forms, especially of cells.prolif��erativeprolif��erous pro��lif��er��a��tionn. of academicscholarship has been the result of faculty commitment to theirinstitutions and their professions. If the institutions changedramatically, this commitment could dissipate dis��si��pate?v. dis��si��pat��ed, dis��si��pat��ing, dis��si��patesv.tr.1. To drive away; disperse.2. . The result of diminishedcommitment potentially could be an unraveling of the communities oflearning that society expects and deserves from its higher educationsystem. PURPOSE The purpose of this study was to identify the sources of change inthe person-organization fit of faculty that might have resulted fromcultural change, determine the ways in which those changes manifestthemselves, and use this information to facilitate improvements inuniversity management. If administrators recognize and understand thesources of faculty organizational fit, they might be able to mitigatethe negative impact that would result from poor fit. The changes thathave been thrust upon higher education are inevitable, but the growingdisconnect disconnect - SCSI reconnect between faculty and their institutions is not. The cleardescription and analysis of the sources and implications of facultyvalue congruence can help administrators design systems to help facultymembers adjust to the changes in higher education--without sacrificingthe values that committed them to the field in the first place. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This study was conducted at a small, private college that hadundergone a financial crisis in 2002. (A pseudonym pseudonym(s`dənĭm)[Gr.,=false name], name assumed, particularly by writers, to conceal identity. A writer's pseudonym is also referred to as a nom de plume (pen name). for this institution,Catholic College, is used throughout this paper.) The site wassignificant: The changes adopted by this college after the crisismimicked those referenced in the literature as being adopted by manysimilar colleges. Unlike other institutions, though, this one had aclear line of demarcation line of demarcationn.A zone of inflammatory reaction separating gangrenous from healthy tissue. for its change--a "before" and"after." The faculty at this college therefore had a clearsense of the changes which might not have been obvious to faculty in aninstitution where the same change was not as sudden. The research had both quantitative and qualitative components. Thequantitative component consisted of a Q-sort exercise to determinecultural profiles, a job satisfaction survey, and an organizationalcommitment survey. The qualitative component of the study was comprisedof faculty interviews and a trend analysis of college archival data. Asummary of the research methodology and conclusions is illustrated inFigure 1. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] The instruments used in the quantitative piece of the research weredrawn from the corporate world, and, at times, their transfer into thedifferent environment of higher education was not completelyappropriate. In particular, the Q-sort exercise and resulting factorloadings (summarized in Appendix A) was problematic. The culturalprofile factors (reproduced in Appendix B) were never defined for thefaculty members, and each participant was left to interpret thestatements in his or her own way. The interpretations of thesestatements were at times unclear when the statements were applied to acollege setting. The different possible understandings of the valuestatements may have caused confusion among faculty members andinconsistencies in the final value profiles drawn. The qualitativecomponent often provided insights when the quantitative tools wereinconclusive INCONCLUSIVE. What does not put an end to a thing. Inconclusive presumptions are those which may be overcome by opposing proof; for example, the law presumes that he who possesses personal property is the owner of it, but evidence is allowed to contradict this presumption, and show who is . As illustrated in Figure 1, the quantitative component of theresearch was comprised of three parts. First, each faculty memberparticipated in two Q-sort exercises based on the organizational cultureprofile developed by O'Reilly, Chatman, and Caldwell (1991). Aperson-organization fit index score (P-O) was calculated as thecorrelation coefficient Correlation CoefficientA measure that determines the degree to which two variable's movements are associated.The correlation coefficient is calculated as: between the actual and ideal institutionalprofiles reported by each faculty member. Factor analysis was used toreduce the data from the faculty responses from the initial 54-itemsurvey to eight factors. These factors are reported in Figure 1. Next,the same cultural profile Q-sort instrument was used to discern dis��cern?v. dis��cerned, dis��cern��ing, dis��cernsv.tr.1. To perceive with the eyes or intellect; detect.2. To recognize or comprehend mentally.3. perceptions of change at the subject college. College participants inthat part of the study (those who had been at the college for five yearsor more) reported perceived differences in six primary areas: stability,risk, supportiveness, culture, quality, and distinctiveness. The second part of the quantitative component consisted of theRusbult and Farrell (1983) job satisfaction survey that was administeredto each faculty participant. (This survey is reproduced in Appendix C).The resulting scores from this survey were correlated cor��re��late?v. cor��re��lat��ed, cor��re��lat��ing, cor��re��latesv.tr.1. To put or bring into causal, complementary, parallel, or reciprocal relation.2. with the indexesof P-O fit for each faculty member to determine whether the relationshipbetween the two constructs was significant. In contrast to both thetheoretical literature and prior quantitative studies (conducted inbusiness settings), no statistically significant relationship was foundto exist between job satisfaction and P-O fit at Catholic College. The third component of the quantitative research Quantitative researchUse of advanced econometric and mathematical valuation models to identify the firms with the best possible prospectives. Antithesis of qualitative research. was anothercorrelation study; this time between P-O fit and organizationalcommitment. The faculty participants answered questions on the scaledMeyer and Allen (1984) organizational commitment survey (Appendix D) andtheir scores on this instrument were correlated with their P-O fits. Inthis case, the result was statistically significant: a significantrelationship between P-O fit and organizational commitment at thecollege was confirmed. For the qualitative part of the analysis, faculty interviews andanalysis of archival data were conducted. Each faculty participant wasasked to provide comments on fit, satisfaction, or commitment duringopen-ended interviews. Through analysis of content, a strong theme ofautonomy or separation was uncovered. Trend analysis of data drawn fromthe college on faculty participation in voluntary events showed thatthis separation manifested itself only in fundraising or administrativeactivities. Faculty retained their historic levels of participation inevents directly affecting students. FINDINGS This research study was developed around four primary researchquestions. Each of these questions and associated findings appearsbelow. Research question 1: What are the primary sources of valuecongruence and incongruence in��con��gru��ent?adj.1. Not congruent.2. Incongruous.in��congru��ence n. at Catholic College? Conclusion The quantitative Q-sort exercise revealed that the primary sourcesof fit for faculty at this college were within the areas of enthusiasm,concern for the individual, and the presence of a clear and guidingphilosophy. Faculty participants were also congruent with the college intheir dislike of competitiveness and aggressiveness. The primary sourcesof incongruence were the college's perceived lack of security, thelong hours required, and its orientation toward rules. The qualitative component of the research study consisted offaculty interviews. The scripts from these interviews showed that,despite the areas of continued strong value congruence with the college,some faculty members may have become disillusioned dis��il��lu��sion?tr.v. dis��il��lu��sioned, dis��il��lu��sion��ing, dis��il��lu��sionsTo free or deprive of illusion.n.1. The act of disenchanting.2. The condition or fact of being disenchanted. with the changes thathad occurred within the college following its financial crisis of 2002.The analysis of content of the scripts from these interviews highlighteda prevailing theme of autonomy: Catholic College faculty not only sawautonomy as the work independence, but also as a separation of thefaculty members and the college administration. Faculty at the collegeexpressed a perceived distinction between their jobs and theinstitution, claiming to be happy with one but discontent with theother. Semantic analysis Semantic analysis may refer to: Semantic analysis (computer science) Semantic analysis (informatics) Semantic analysis (linguistics) of the scripts confirmed the severing sev��er?v. sev��ered, sev��er��ing, sev��ersv.tr.1. To set or keep apart; divide or separate.2. To cut off (a part) from a whole.3. of theties between faculty and the college itself because whenever referringto the college (and its administration) the faculty used the word them,while when referring to their own divisions and faculty peers within theinstitution they used the word us. Evidence The faculty rankings of their top 15 ideal and actual environmentalcharacteristics appear in Appendix E. Enthusiasm was the top rankedideal organizational characteristic voted for by faculty, and it alsoranked 4th in their actual assessment of the current cultural profile atCatholic College. Concern for individual rights ranked second in theCatholic College faculty's preferences, and was 12th on theirrankings of the actual college culture. The presence of a clear andguiding philosophy was ranked fourth in the Catholic Collegefaculty's ideal profile, and first in the actual perceived cultureof the college itself. There were similarities between what the facultymembers did not want to see in their ideal institutions and what theydid not claim to see at Catholic College as well. The primary sources ofsimilarity on the negative side were that faculty did not prize anaggressive or competitive environment (ranking the characteristics 54thand 48th respectively), and did not believe the culture of CatholicCollege demonstrated these traits (ranking the characteristics of theactual institution 53rd and 48th respectively). The qualitative datashowed that faculty mentioned the theme of autonomy 15 times during thecourse of the interviews--more than any other theme. Discussion Austin (2002), Birnbaum (2000), Finkelstein (2003), andO'Meara, Kaufman, and Kuntz (2003) all wrote of their concernsabout faculty's adjustments to the increased business focus adoptedby many colleges and universities. Blackburn and Lawrence (1995)expressed the apprehension The seizure and arrest of a person who is suspected of having committed a crime.A reasonable belief of the possibility of imminent injury or death at the hands of another that justifies a person acting in Self-Defense against the potential attack. that faculty would sense the changes to anew, more aggressive business model and "become genuinelydisturbed" (p. 3). The quantitative phase of this research,however, did not support the concerns of these prior authors. AtCatholic College, faculty did claim that aggressiveness,competitiveness, and a reliance on analysis (all business-likecharacteristics) were among their least preferred organizationalcharacteristics, but they also claimed that these same characteristicswere similarly least characteristic of Catholic College. This result issurprising, because this college had made a direct, announced, andconcerted effort to implement a new, business-like strategic plan duringthe year prior to the start of this research. Despite that, the facultymust have recognized that while the college might have become moreaggressive, more competitive, and more analytical because of thestrategic plan, it still did not demonstrate these dislikedcharacteristics strongly in an absolute sense. The sources ofincongruence--the longer hours, the focus on rules, and the lack ofsecurity--were more likely byproducts of the financial crisis thatpreceded the business focused strategic plan, not consequences of theplan itself. The factors that faculty complained about in thequalitative component of the research--long hours, lack of support, lowpay--were perhaps also the types of complaints any employee, if asked,would make about any organization. On their own, these comments did notdisclose much unique about this, or any, college environment. However,the prevalence of the theme of separation in the analysis of contentseems to suggest that the faculty participants found this disconnection dis��con��nect?v. dis��con��nect��ed, dis��con��nect��ing, dis��con��nectsv.tr.1. To sever or interrupt the connection of or between: disconnected the hose.2. troubling: they seemed to expect to feel a level of attachment to theinstitution that they apparently did not. Research question 2: What are faculty member's perceptions ofchange at Catholic College? Conclusion Faculty members seemed to perceive the movement toward a morefocused, niche-seeking business model as reducing the supportive,nurturing culture they remembered from the starts of their careers. Forsome, this may have led to a desire to divest To deprive or take away.Divest is usually used in reference to the relinquishment of authority, power, property, or title. If, for example, an individual is disinherited, he or she is divested of the right to inherit money. emotionally from theinstitution--perhaps because they believed that the college had alreadydivorced itself from them. Evidence The Wilcoxon test Wilcoxon testa test used in statistics to compare paired data. Has the advantage of incorporating the size of the difference between the two sets of data in the comparison. was conducted for each characteristic'sactual and historic faculty ratings. Of the 54 value statements, onlyfocus on culture, willingness to take risk, distinctiveness,supportiveness, and stability were found to be statistically significantat the [infinity infinity,in mathematics, that which is not finite. A sequence of numbers, a1, a2, a3, … , is said to "approach infinity" if the numbers eventually become arbitrarily large, i.e. ] = .05 level. Discussion The overall comparisons between the levels of historic fit andcurrent fit were not conclusive Determinative; beyond dispute or question. That which is conclusive is manifest, clear, or obvious. It is a legal inference made so peremptorily that it cannot be overthrown or contradicted. . Eight (of 22) participants showedimprovements in fit; 12 showed deterioration de��te��ri��o��ra��tionn.The process or condition of becoming worse. in fit; and two showed nodifferences between historic and actual fit. This finding contradictsthe premises of Austin (2002), Birnbaum (2000), and Finkelstein (2003)that faculty resent re��sent?tr.v. re��sent��ed, re��sent��ing, re��sentsTo feel indignantly aggrieved at.[French ressentir, to be angry, from Old French resentir, the movement toward a business orientation, sinceCatholic College's new strategic plan was pointedly in thatdirection. The lack of change in P-O fit between the historic profileand the actual current profile could reflect a true lack of responsefrom faculty to the changes at Catholic College, or it could insteadhave been a result of problems with the interpretation of theO'Reilly, Chatman, and Caldwell (1991) organizational profilefactors within a college setting. Cultural profile factors such asresults orientation, quality, achievement orientation, and competitivewere often confusing to faculty participants in this study. For example,in a college environment, does competitive refer to student admissionstandards or to the college's behavior in its industry? Somefaculty participants claimed that it was very possible to rank thecompetitiveness as highly uncharacteristic un��char��ac��ter��is��tic?adj.Unusual or atypical: an uncharacteristic display of anger.un when referring to itsrelationship with incoming students but highly characteristic whenreferring to how aggressively it "sells" its product.Similarly, many faculty participants questioned the characteristicachievement orientation. "Who's achievement?" they asked.The college could be ranked low on this characteristic if the focus wason the students' expected performances, but high if the focus wason the achievements of faculty and staff. While the comparison between the actual and historic aggregateindexes of fit was inconclusive, the analysis of the components of fitshowed areas in which the faculty participants agreed changes hadoccurred.Faculty believed that the college had become less supportive, morefocused on culture, more distinctive, more risk-bearing, and less stablethan it had been at the start of their careers. These perceptions gelwith those reported in the research in the field. Blackburn and Lawrence(1995), for example, wrote that the competitive pressures facinginstitutions of higher education have made them less supportive, lesscollegial col��le��gi��al?adj.1. a. Characterized by or having power and authority vested equally among colleagues: "He . . . , and more focused on commercial success. The comparison of thecomponents within the historical cultural indexes and actual currentcultural indexes indicated that the faculty members at Catholic Collegesensed this shift. It is possible that this perceived shift to a lesssupportive administrative environment was connected to the facultyfeelings of separation described under the qualitative conclusions ofresearch question 1, although it did not manifest itself directly intothe P-O fit measurements. Research question 3: What is the connection betweenperson-organization fit and job satisfaction at Catholic College? Conclusion Job satisfaction, as expressed in percent terms, averaged 78% amongthe participants. When the indexes for P-O fit were correlated withthose for job satisfaction, though, no significant relationship wasdemonstrated. In fact, some of the faculty members with the lowest P-Ofit indexes showed the highest levels of job satisfaction. Once again,one possible explanation for this counterintuitive coun��ter��in��tu��i��tive?adj.Contrary to what intuition or common sense would indicate: "Scientists made clear what may at first seem counterintuitive, that the capacity to be pleasant toward a fellow creature is ... result might beinstrumentation issues: the Rusbult and Farrell (1983) job satisfactionsurvey was developed for use in corporate environments, and some of thequestions were confusing to faculty members. The term satisfactionitself, in fact, caused a large number of faculty members to ask forclarification. Faculty members who offered comments in the qualitativephase of the research distinguished between their satisfaction withtheir jobs (which was high) and their satisfaction with the institutionitself (which was reportedly not as high). Many faculty participantswere unclear about how to respond to the Rusbult and Farrell (1983) jobsatisfaction survey because the questions it posed did not distinguishbetween these two levels of satisfaction. Evidence The Spearman spear��man?n.A man, especially a soldier, armed with a spear. correlation coefficient between job satisfaction andP-O fit was .234, which was not significant at the 4 = .05 level. Thequalitative data showed 15 distinct references to the differing levelsof satisfaction between the job and the institution. One faculty membercommented, "There's us, there's what we do, and thenthere's all this craziness around us." Another claimed,"I'd take this job all over again--but it's the job; notthe place." Discussion The lack of a significant correlation between job satisfaction andperson-organization fit contradicted the prevailing research on P-O fit.Job satisfaction is a construct often referenced as a consequence ofproper fit; lack of satisfaction is shown as a consequence of poor fit(Adkins, Russell, & Werbel, 1994; Caplan, 1987; Chatman, 1989;Erdogan, Kraimer, & Liden, 2002; Kristof, 1996; McCulloch &Silverhart, 2000; O'Reilly, Chatman, & Caldwell, 1991). Whileone potential explanation for the discrepancy DISCREPANCY. A difference between one thing and another, between one writing and another; a variance. (q.v.) 2. Discrepancies are material and immaterial. between this study andprevious ones could be the inappropriate use of the job satisfactionsurvey, Herzberg's (1959) two-factor motivation theory provides analternative theoretical explanation for this unusual finding. Whenresponding to the survey on job satisfaction, the faculty membersfocused exclusively on the job itself, not the context of the job. Theirsatisfaction with their roles as teachers, researchers, and scholars washigh and unconnected to their feelings about the institution or theirperceived value congruence with it. The qualitative component of theresearch confirmed that the faculty participants drew a cleardistinction between the jobs they do and the environment in which theyperform them. In Herzberg's terms, the faculty was able toarticulate clearly the distinction between job content factors(motivators) and job context factors (hygiene factors Hygiene factors are job factors that can cause dissatisfaction if missing but do not necessarily motivate employees if increased [1].Hygiene factors have mostly to do with the job environment [2]. ). When answeringthe questions about job satisfaction, relevance was only placed on theteaching and research activities the faculty members pursued, whereaswhen participating in the Q-sort exercise, job content factors (such asenthusiasm for the job and taking individual responsibility) and jobcontext factors (such as high pay for performance and rule orientation)were intermingled. Organizational fit, in this environment, was notsignificantly related to job satisfaction. Research question 4: What is the connection between P-O fit andorganizational commitment at Catholic College? Conclusion Fit did affect the commitment of Catholic College faculty to theinstitution, and this commitment level showed some degree of strain asfaculty members adjusted to the new realities of their campus lives.Reduced commitment was directed solely at the college administration,though, and did not spill over Verb 1. spill over - overflow with a certain feeling; "The children bubbled over with joy"; "My boss was bubbling over with anger"bubble over, overflowseethe, boil - be in an agitated emotional state; "The customer was seething with anger"2. into commitment to departments,divisions, or students. Evidence The mean commitment level was lower than that of satisfaction forthe faculty as a whole, which suggested that faculty participants weremore content with their jobs than with the college itself. The Spearmanrank correlation In statistics, rank correlation is the study of relationships between different rankings on the same set of items. It deals with measuring correspondence between two rankings, and assessing the significance of this correspondence. between P-O fit and commitment was .322, which wassignificant at the .05 level. Discussion Despite the fact that the relationship between commitment and P-Ofit was statistically significant, instrumentation issues once againarose, and the correlation might have been understated because ofmisinterpretations of the organizational commitment survey. Analysis ofcontent of the scripts of the faculty comments (collected after thesurveys of satisfaction and commitment) revealed that facultyinterpreted the term commitment in two separate ways. First, theyreferred to commitment to their professions, divisions, and facultypeers. This commitment was high. Second, they spoke of commitment to theinstitution itself, which was mixed. The term commitment is perhaps toobroadly defined to be useful in this setting. Affect and semanticanalysis of the interview comments also indicated that there was adivide between the emotional connection the faculty felt toward theirimmediate peers (referring to fellow faculty members within theirdivisions as us) and the connection they felt toward the college as aninstitution (referring to the administration as them). P-O fit was shownto impact organizational commitment, but the degree to which thiscorrelation held is suspect because of the potential misinterpretationof the commitment survey. The qualitative analysis Qualitative AnalysisSecurities analysis that uses subjective judgment based on nonquantifiable information, such as management expertise, industry cycles, strength of research and development, and labor relations. pointed toward lowerlevels of organizational commitment than the quantitative instrumentmeasured. IMPLICATIONS Faculty at this college did perceive changes, and these changes,for some, may have impacted their levels of P-O fit and value congruencewith the college. Value congruence, though, was found only to affectorganizational commitment, not the level of job satisfaction. Facultyremained highly satisfied with their jobs, even as they were, at times,openly critical of changes in college administration. For the facultywithin this study, job satisfaction was gleaned from the nature of thejob itself--the teaching and the research. In Herzberg's (1959)terminology, the job content factors--the autonomy, responsibility, andfeedback--of their positions continued to serve as powerful motivators. The clear ability to separate "the job" from "theorganization" may be unique to the education sector. A chemistworking on a college campus, for example, may consider his or herstrongest allegiance and commitment to the field of chemistry. His orher peers and reference groups may be from the field, rather than thecollege community. The chemist's commitment is to the field ofchemistry, and his or her relationship with the college may beconditional upon the freedom to pursue professional interests while inits employment. Lindholm's (2003) qualitative research Qualitative researchTraditional analysis of firm-specific prospects for future earnings. It may be based on data collected by the analysts, there is no formal quantitative framework used to generate projections. on P-O fitin a college environment aligns with this premise. She found thatfaculty members value three primary factors: intellectual engagement,emotional support, and structural support. Of these three, all but thethird can be attained without the help of college administrations. Thefaculty member only relies exclusively on the institution for the thirdvalue--the structural or financial support to pursue his or herprofessional interest. The faculty member in this example, then, can besaid to be a chemist first; a faculty member second. An accountant or business professional in a corporate setting, onthe other hand, might have a different order of allegiance. In manyorganizations, it is logical that the individual employee firstidentifies himself or herself as an employee of the company, and secondas a member of a profession. This order difference may have implicationsfor the testing of Herzberg's (1959) theory. Herzberg claimed thatthere were two separate sets of factors functioning at work: satisfiersand dissatisfiers. According to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. his theory, the dissatisfiers wererelated to the context of the individual's job--pay, workingconditions, and management style. These hygiene factors caused employeedissatisfaction, but could not motivate in and of themselves. Tomotivate an employee, Herzberg stressed the need for motivators, orfactors involving the content of the jobs themselves. Motivators in theHerzberg scheme included the level of responsibility in the job, thefeedback from the client, the ability to be creative, and the ability towork independently. What makes an employee happy is not the opposite ofwhat makes him or her unhappy. Herzberg's theory has been tested in corporate settings butthe conclusions have been mixed (Oshagbemi, 1997). In research studiesconducted in business organizations, dissatisfaction over hygienefactors (such as pay) often spill over into self-reported overall jobsatisfaction (Castillo & Cano, 2004). Herzberg, Mausner, andSnyderman (1959) themselves conceded that deleterious deleteriousadj. harmful. context factors,such as poor administrative practices or low job security, could bringabout poor job attitudes (p. 113). This impact, in most settings, isdifficult to unravel from job satisfaction emerging from the content ofthe job itself. In this research study, though, the faculty participantseasily and naturally separated the two. The qualitative component ofthis research confirmed that the level of satisfaction with the job washigh because of the nature of the job itself, while the level ofcommitment was lower because of dissatisfaction with the administration.These results comply closely with Herzberg's motivation theory. Atthis college, person-organization fit affected commitment, but notsatisfaction. Oldham and Kulik (1984) predicted that changes in theadministration of colleges and universities would leave faculty membersangry and disengaged dis��en��gage?v. dis��en��gaged, dis��en��gag��ing, dis��en��gag��esv.tr.1. To release from something that holds fast, connects, or entangles. See Synonyms at extricate.2. . To a certain degree, the qualitative results ofthis study supported this premise. Faculty members at Catholic Collegeexpressed stronger loyalties to their students and professions than tothe college as an institution. Oldham and Kulik, however, went on towarn that this faculty frustration would cause the faculty to reduce thetime they spent on teaching, research, and service activities. Theresults of this study, though, indicated that because faculty are ableto separate their jobs from the institution, their teaching and researchefforts were unaffected by their discontent--indeed, some facultymembers admitted to be turning inward toward these professionalactivities as they removed themselves emotionally from the operations ofthe college. Only extra-role activities directly benefiting the collegeitself showed reductions in faculty work effort. The implications of job satisfaction that stands apart fromorganizational commitment, then, might be a reordering re��or��der?v. re��or��dered, re��or��der��ing, re��or��dersv.tr.1. To order (the same goods) again.2. To straighten out or put in order again.3. To rearrange.v. of facultymembers' priorities. The job of a faculty member is loosely defined(Blackburn & Lawrence, 1995). He or she typically spends 57 hoursper week working (Blackburn & Lawrence, 1995, p. 4), but often fewerthan 30 of these are prescribed pre��scribe?v. pre��scribed, pre��scrib��ing, pre��scribesv.tr.1. To set down as a rule or guide; enjoin. See Synonyms at dictate.2. To order the use of (a medicine or other treatment). by college administration. Beyond classtime and mandated office hours office hours,n.pl See business hours. , the faculty member is free to pursue theprofessional activities that suit him or her best. Finkelstein (2003) described the choices open to the faculty memberas the "triumvirate Triumvirate(trīŭm`vĭrĭt, –vĭrāt'), in ancient Rome, ruling board or commission of three men. Triumvirates were common in the Roman republic. " of teaching, research, and service (p.13). In part, the time allocation the faculty member devotes to eachrole depends upon his or her proclivities: some faculty members, forexample, may find that teaching and course development easily absorbmost of their time. The institution's rewards also affect how thefaculty member spends his or her hours: a culture of "publish orperish "Publish or perish" refers to the pressure to publish work constantly in order to further or sustain one's career in academia. The competition for tenure-track faculty positions in academia puts increasing pressure on scholars to publish new work frequently. " encourages far more emphasis on research than on the otherlegs of the triumvirate. What determines, though, the amount of time thefaculty member spends in service to the institution? It is highlypossible that this function springs from a sense of the facultymember's commitment to the values and mission of the institution. Service, it appears, is the weakest and least preferred role of thefaculty position for most individuals (Blackburn & Lawrence, 1995).In terms of needs fulfillment, it is easy to envision teaching andresearch activities as providing immediate gratification GRATIFICATION. A reward given voluntarily for some service or benefit rendered, without being requested so to do, either expressly or by implication. . A publishedarticle brings esteem and recognition to a faculty member. Mentoringstruggling students fulfills the need to nurture NURTURE. The act of taking care of children and educating them: the right to the nurture of children generally belongs to the father till the child shall arrive at the age of fourteen years, and not longer. Till then, he is guardian by nurture. Co. Litt. 38 b. and influence. Whatparallel is there for time spent editing a course catalog Noun 1. course catalog - a catalog listing the courses offered by a college or universitycourse catalogue, prospectuscatalog, catalogue - a book or pamphlet containing an enumeration of things; "he found it in the Sears catalog" orparticipating in a college fundraising activity? Only a sense ofbelonging and attachment to the college or university would compel Compel - COMpute ParallEL afaculty member to reduce the time spent on more fulfilling activities inorder to support the institution. It is in this college service functionthat the changes in higher education, and the low levels oforganizational commitment that might arise from them, could manifestthemselves. Staw (1984) claimed that faculty were motivated primarily byaltruism altruism(ăl`trĭz`əm), concept in philosophy and psychology that holds that the interests of others, rather than of the self, can motivate an individual. , but this research study suggested that this altruism operateswithin limits. Staw argued that the typical faculty member was driven bythe need to serve. This research study does not contradict con��tra��dict?v. con��tra��dict��ed, con��tra��dict��ing, con��tra��dictsv.tr.1. To assert or express the opposite of (a statement).2. To deny the statement of. See Synonyms at deny. this premise,but does simplify it. At this college, faculty may be driven to serve,but their service is exclusively directed toward their students andtheir professions. Their altruism was not found to extend to the serviceof their employing institution. This conclusion was supported byarchival data: at Catholic College, faculty participation in schoolfundraising events had dropped by at least 60% after the administrativechanges following the financial crisis while teaching, scholarship, andparticipation with student activities remained constant. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH This research study took place in a small, private, religiouslyaffiliated college. There, job satisfaction was maintained after afinancial crisis and rapid administrative changes. Further research, inlarger and more diverse populations, should be conducted to test theresilience resilience (r·zilˑ·yens),n of faculty job satisfaction in other academic environments. The instruments used in this study were created and tested withinbusiness settings. During the course of the research, it became clearthat issues of interpretation may have affected the results of thequantitative analyses performed. A new cultural profile instrument foruse in Q-sorts, a new job satisfaction survey, and a new organizationalcommitment survey should be developed for use in colleges anduniversities. Further quantitative analyses could then be conducted onP-O fit and its connections with job satisfaction and organizationalcommitment using instruments developed for and tested in academicenvironments. This study theoretically supported Herzberg, Mausner, andSnyderman's (1959) two-factor theory of motivation. Previousquantitative studies also conducted in academic settings failed to provethat faculty clearly distinguish between motivators and hygiene factors,though (Castillo & Cano, 2004; Oshagbemi, 1997). Exploratoryqualitative research should be conducted to further examine the strengthof the separation of job content and job context factors on collegecampuses. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ACTION College administrators should be made aware of the impact oforganizational change on faculty commitment. The transition to a morecompetitive, business-like organizational model does not impact the mainfunctions of the college--educating students and advancingknowledge--but it can impact the faculty's willingness to provideservice to the college itself as an institution. Administrations shouldstand ready to hire additional staff to pick up these activitiespreviously performed by faculty volunteers. Since faculty rely on their college administrations for support(emotional and financial), the administrators should use their budgetsto reward faculty performances in teaching and research. Faculty atCatholic College expressed the belief that during the changes that hadoccurred on campus, the administration had reduced its support forfaculty. A demonstration of financial support for the things thatfaculty find most important might bridge the gap between the academicand the administrative communities on campus. Administrators should alsostrive to communicate the details of the changing roles of faculty inthe organization during transitions and, if possible, involve them inthe determination of their appropriate place in this new academicenvironment. It is highly possible that faculty could become ascommitted to a business-like college as they were to the traditionalfaculty governance model. It may be possible to maintain facultycommitment during the transition from one model to the other withappropriate communication. IMPLICATIONS FOR SOCIAL CHANGE Much has been written about the impact of cultural change on thework of college faculty. Primarily, researchers have expressed concernsabout the willingness of faculty to maintain their roles as teachers,scholars, and social critics as the institutions with which they areaffiliated change their ways of operating. This research has found that,at least in this small college setting, these fears are ungrounded. Thechanging culture of this academic institution, if anything, has pushedfaculty deeper into their professional worlds. At this research site, asfaculty commitment to their institution faltered, their commitment totheir professions was retained and their job satisfaction remainedstrong. The victims of the change in faculty commitment may be the collegesand universities themselves. Reduced organizational commitment hasresulted (in this research study) in a decrease in the participation incollege service. This does not appear to be an insurmountable problem,though. The trend in higher education already has been toward larger andstronger administrative staffs: Faculty's decision to shirk shirkIn Islam, idolatry and polytheism, both of which are regarded as heretical. The Qu'ran stresses that God does not share his powers with any partner (sharik) and warns that those who believe in idols will be harshly dealt with on the Day of Judgment. theiradministrative duties just shifts these responsibilities to this growingback office workforce. Comprehensive specialization A career option pursued by some attorneys that entails the acquisition of detailed knowledge of, and proficiency in, a particular area of law.As the law in the United States becomes increasingly complex and covers a greater number of subjects, more and more attorneys are of labor, it appears, has presenteditself on college campuses. After the changes in higher educationadministration have been completed, it is likely that a system mightemerge in which academics act purely as academics--teaching andconducting research--while strong, business-like administrations steerthe institutions so that they continue to be able to support theimportant functions of these academic professionals. Appendix B Organizational Profile Factors (O'Reilly, Chatman, &Caldwell, 1991) 1. Flexibility 2. Adaptability 3. Stability 4. Predictability 5. Being innovative 6. Being quick to take advantage of opportunities 7. A willingness to experiment 8. Risk taking 9. Being careful 10. Autonomy 11. Being rule oriented o��ri��ent?n.1. Orient The countries of Asia, especially of eastern Asia.2. a. The luster characteristic of a pearl of high quality.b. A pearl having exceptional luster.3. 12. Being analytical 13. Paying attention Noun 1. paying attention - paying particular notice (as to children or helpless people); "his attentiveness to her wishes"; "he spends without heed to the consequences"attentiveness, heed, regard to detail 14. Being precise 15. Being team oriented 16. Sharing information freely 17; Emphasizing a single culture throughout the organization 18. Being people oriented 19. Fairness 20. Respect for the individual's right 21. Tolerance 22. Informality 23. Being easy going 24. Being calm 25. Being supportive 26. Being aggressive 27. Decisiveness 28. Action orientation 29. Taking initiative 30. Being reflective 31. Achievement orientation 32. Being demanding 33. Taking individual responsibility 34. Having high expectations for performance 35. Opportunities for professional growth 36. High pay for good performance 37 Security of employment 38. Offers praise for good performance 39. Low level of conflict 40. Confronting conflict directly 41. Developing friends at work 42. Fitting in 43. Working in collaboration with others 44. Enthusiasm for the job 45. Working long hours 46. Not being constrained con��strain?tr.v. con��strained, con��strain��ing, con��strains1. To compel by physical, moral, or circumstantial force; oblige: felt constrained to object.See Synonyms at force.2. by many rules 47. An emphasis on quality 48. Being distinctive--different from others 49. Having a good reputation 50. Being socially responsible 51. Being results oriented 52. Having a clear guiding philosophy 53. Being competitive 54. Being highly organized Appendix C Questions used to measure job satisfaction (Rusbult & Farrell,1983) 1. All things considered All Things Considered (ATC) is a news radio program in the United States, broadcast on the National Public Radio network. It was the first news program on the network, and is broadcast live worldwide through several outlets. , how satisfied are you with your currentjob? 2. In general, how much do you like your current job? 3. Knowing what you now know, if you had to decide all over againwhether to take the job you now have, what would you decide? 4. If a good friend of yours told you that he/she was interested inworking in a job like yours for your employer, what would you tellhim/her? 5. How does your current job compare to your ideal job? 6. How does your current job measure up with the sort of job youwanted when you took it? Response scale: 7= high and 1 = low Appendix D Questions asked to measure organizational commitment (Meyer &Allen, 1984) 1. I do not feel a strong sense of belonging to my firm. (R) 2. I do not feel "emotionally attached" to this firm. (R) 3. This firm has a great deal of personal meaning for me. 4. I do not feel like "part of the family" at this firm.(R) 5. I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career with thisfirm. 6. I enjoy discussing my firm with people outside it.. 7. I really feel as if this firm's problems are my own. 8. I think I could easily become as attached to another firm as Iam to this one.(R) R = reverse score Response scale: 1= strongly disagree, 7 =strongly agree REFERENCES Adkins, C., Russell, C., & Werbel, J. (1994). Judgments of fitin the selection process: The role of work value congruence. PersonnelPsychology, 47, 3, 605-623. Association of American Colleges and Universities. (2002). GreaterExpectations. 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Beth Castiglia, Felician College Felician College is a private Roman Catholic college with two campuses, located in Lodi and Rutherford, New Jersey.It was founded as the "Immaculate Conception Normal School" by the Felician Sisters in 1923, and became "Immaculate Conception Junior College" in 1942. Appendix AResults of Factor Analysis by Faculty PreferenceOrganizational ActionCulture Conservatism: Calmness: Orientation:Profile Item Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3Fairness 0.701 0.056 -0.376Competitiveness -0.704 -0.144 0.101Stability 0.666 0.208 0.247Praise 0.67 -0.039 -0.157Aggressiveness -0.666 -0.179 0.018Being calm 0.043 0.711 -0.183Rule oriented -0.238 0.638 0.036Risk taking -0.194 -0.683 -0.155Low conflict 0.23 0.523 -0.27Flexibility 0.004 0.466 -0.125Tolerance 0.315 0.463 -0.11Easy-going 0.222 0.463 -0.324Results oriented 0.006 -0.127 0.697Innovative -0.107 -0.182 0.589Opportunities -0.431 -0.195 0.511Reflective 0.077 -0.029 -0.422Being careful 0.019 0.039 0.043Experiment -0.202 -0.106 0.441Organized -0.054 0.109 -0.015Reputation -0.076 -0.032 0.107Philosophy -0.038 -0.21 0.032Autonomy 0.132 -0.182 -0.268No rules 0.095 -0.103 0.037Growth -0.128 -0.01 0.313Fitting in 0.372 -0.107 0.009Enthusiasm 0.281 -0.139 0.127Distinctive -0.04 -0.205 0.103Supportive 0.224 0.282 -0.395OrganizationalCulture Carefulness: Autonomy: Enthusiasm:Profile Item Factor 4 Factor 5 Factor 6Fairness -0.133 0.11 -0.02Competitiveness 0.194 0.013 -0.044Stability 0.093 0.161 -0.092Praise 0.144 -0.22 0.163Aggressiveness -0.113 -0.115 -0.411Being calm 0.13 -0.084 0.096Rule oriented 0.282 -0.096 -0.108Risk taking -0.058 -0.073 -0.109Low conflict -0.036 0.028 0.359Flexibility -0.03 0.361 -0.158Tolerance -0.18 0.116 -0.237Easy-going -0.078 0.189 0.132Results oriented 0.034 -0.202 -0.039Innovative -0.064 0.092 0.154Opportunities -0.079 0.29 -0.108Reflective 0.141 -0.091 0.017Being careful 0.725 0.032 -0.033Experiment -0.723 0.016 0.045Organized 0.616 -0.308 0.039Reputation 0.518 -0.042 0.229Philosophy 0.155 -0.774 -0.169Autonomy -0.332 0.68 -0.015No rules 0.19 0.602 -0.511Growth 0.441 0.541 0.112Fitting in 0.098 -0.476 -0.12Enthusiasm 0.113 0.102 0.619Distinctive -0.133 -0.003 -0.742Supportive -0.199 -0.042 0.371OrganizationalCulture Responsibility: Achievement:Profile Item Factor 7 Factor 8Fairness 0.248 -0.068Competitiveness -0.019 -0.115Stability -0.111 -0.15Praise -0.144 -0.007Aggressiveness -0.221 -0.105Being calm 0.12 0.032Rule oriented -0.079 0.352Risk taking -0.137 0.291Low conflict -0.002 0.116Flexibility -0.4 0.346Tolerance 0.17 -0.285Easy-going 0.029 -0.176Results oriented -0.038 0.09Innovative -0.076 0.443Opportunities -0.154 -0.272Reflective 0.653 0.051Being careful -0.001 0.048Experiment -0.131 0.106Organized -0.138 -0.152Reputation -0.235 -0.097Philosophy 0.219 0.251Autonomy -0.076 -0.109No rules 0.031 0.297Growth 0.234 0.063Fitting in -0.241 -0.354Enthusiasm -0.11 0.026Distinctive -0.111 -0.057Supportive -0.204 0.337APPENDIX EValues in Order of Most to Least Characteristic All Participants Ideal ActualEnthusiasm Clear philosophyIndividual rights People orientationFairness Emphasizing cultureClear philosophy EnthusiasmQuality Social responsibilityCollaboration CollaborationOpportunities for growth Long hoursSupportive DistinctivePeople orientation Rule orientedGood reputation Making friends at workSocial responsibility ReputationPraise for performance Individual rightsIndividual responsibility SupportiveSecurity Praise for performanceFlexibility High expectationsInnovation Fitting inHigh expectations InformalityInitiative Individual responsibilityTolerance CarefulShares information freely AutonomyPay for performance ReflectiveResults orientation Achievement orientationAutonomy ToleranceTeam orientation Results orientationAdaptable QualityExperiment Team orientationStability PredictabilityTakes advantage of opportunities FlexibilityAchievement orientation Low conflictOrganized Confronts conflict directlyDetail oriented InnovationAction oriented InitiativeReflective CalmDecisive FairnessMaking friends at work DemandingLow conflict AdaptabilityPrecise Easy goingConfronts conflict directly ExperimentDistinctive Action-orientationAnalytical Opportunities for growthCalm Detail orientationRisk taking Takes advantage of opportunitiesNo rules Risk takingFitting in Shares information freelyInformality DecisiveEasy going StabilityPredictable AnalyticalCompetitive CompetitiveCareful OrganizedDemanding No rulesLong hours SecurityEmphasizing culture PreciseRule oriented AggressiveAggressive High pay for performance