The demonstration of human antiquity: three rediscovered illustrations from the 1825 and 1846 excavations in Kent's Cavern (Torquay, England).

The demonstration of human antiquity: three rediscovered illustrations from the 1825 and 1846 excavations in Kent's Cavern (Torquay, England). Introduction Kent's Cavern, Torquay, England (NGR NGR National Grid Reference (UK)NGR National Grape Registry (UC Davis)NGR National Guard RegulationNGR Non Grain Raising (wood finish)SX 934 642: Figure 1) isone of the most famous sites in the history of archaeology The history of archaeology has been one of increasing professionalisation, and the use of an increasing range of techniques, to obtain as much data on the site being examined as possible. OriginsThe exact origins of archaeology as a discipline are uncertain. , principallyfor its early role in the advocacy of a deep human antiquity. Yetremarkably, and despite the fact that major excavations in the cavespanning at least 21 years between 1824 and 1880 involved leadingfigures such as Buckland, Cuvier, Lyell and Pengelly, no plan, sectionor other illustration of the nineteenth-century investigations--otherthan one sketchy section drawing - has ever been formally published, andup to now none was thought to exist. Here, we report on the rediscoveryin 2009 of three drawings of the interior of Kent's Cavern,published for the first time with a discussion of their historicalsignificance for our understanding of this site. Kent's Cavern. nineteenth-century excavations and literature Kent's Cavern first came to the attention of the scientificworld in 1824, when Mr J. Northmore, inspired to search for'Mithraic temples', investigated the cave in September of thatyear, and reported his findings of fossils of extinct and exoticmammalian species to the eminent Oxford geologist William Buckland William Buckland (Axminster, 12 March, 1784 - 14 August, 1856) was an English geologist and palaeontologist, who wrote the first full account of a fossil dinosaur. He was a proponent of Old Earth creationism and Flood geology, who later became convinced by the glaciation theory of (Pengelly 1868; Kennard 1945). Buckland, who had by this time alreadyestablished the presence of extinct animals It may never be fully completed or, depending on its its nature, it may be that it can never be completed. However, new and revised entries in the list are always welcome. Pre-modern extinctionsList of extinct cetaceans List of extinct birds at Kirkdale Cave Kirkdale Cave is a cave near Kirkbymoorside in the Vale of Pickering, North Yorkshire, England. The cave was discovered by workmen in 1821, and was found to contain bones of elephants, hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, hyenas, bison, giant deer, smaller mammals and birds. , Yorkshireand the Goat's Hole cave at Paviland, Gower (Buckland 1823) wasquick to recognise the palaeontological Adj. 1. palaeontological - of or relating to paleontologypaleontological significance of this new siteand following his own (and others') brief explorations encouragedanother interested cleric, the Rev. John MacEnery Father John MacEnery (1796–1841) was a Catholic priest and early archaeologist who investigated the prehistoric remains at Kent's Cavern in Devon.MacEnery concluded that the palaeolithic flint tools he found in the same contexts as the bones of extinct prehistoric of Tot Abbey, toundertake fuller investigations. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] MacEnery's excavations, probably intermittent, spannedNovember 1825 to August 1829 (Pengelly 1869; Kennard 1945), winding downtwo years before Darwin sailed on HMS Beagle For other uses of "HMS Beagle", see HMS Beagle (disambiguation).HMS Beagle was a Cherokee class 10-gun brig of the Royal Navy, named after the beagle, a breed of dog. . MacEnery amassed anenormous collection of fossils and a number of Palaeolithic stone toolsfrom different parts of the cave. He recognised very clearly that hiswork established the co-occurrence of human artefacts with extinctanimals (Kenrick 1861, reproduced in Pengelly 1878: 157), contradictingthe accepted biblical teaching on human antiquity, yet in the case ofKent's Cavern he was unable to demonstrate deep human antiquity tothe wider world. The extent to which Buckland--or a combination ofBuckland and Cuvier--suppressed MacEnery's discoveries isdebatable. As Grayson (1983: 77) notes, "in the archaeologicalliterature, Buckland has been seen as a retrograde force, retarding theprogress of prehistoric archaeology History is the study of the past using written records. Archaeology can also be used to study the past alongside history. Prehistoric archaeology is the study of the past before historical records began. , at least in England,'something usually blamed on his institutional background (Oxford, theChurch of England's foremost intellectual establishment). Bucklandwas committed to reconciling biblical teaching on creation with thenewly-emerging geological evidence for the antiquity of the Earth, andto upholding the prevailing 'progressivist' theory that theMosaic deluge was the last of a series of floods. Extinct fauna hadalready perished in earlier floods as the world 'developed'into a form in which it was ready to receive humans. Because of thisbackground, therefore, Buckland remained an opponent of argumentsclaiming an association between humans and extinct animals, and it haseven recently been claimed that he wilfully WILFULLY, intentionally. 2. In charging certain offences it is required that they should be stated to be wilfully done. Arch. Cr. Pl. 51, 58; Leach's Cr. L. 556. 3. ignored evidence supportingthe contrary position (Weston 2008). Polarised views such as this conceal greater complexitiesunderlying Buckland's position, and do little justice to the man.Grayson (1983: 77-8) notes that it was in fact as a result ofBuckland's work that discoveries of humanly-made artefacts andfossil animals were found in British caves in the first place, and thatBuckland was understandably cautious of the dangers of cave stratigraphy stratigraphy,branch of geology specifically concerned with the arrangement of layered rocks (see stratification). Stratigraphy is based on the law of superposition, which states that in a normal sequence of rock layers the youngest is on top and the oldest on the and what today would be described as stratigraphically intrusive objectsand fortuitous associations of items of different ages. Nor didopposition to the notion of human antiquity disappear withBuckland's generation; as Grayson (1983: 77) notes, even morevociferous objections to human antiquity were forwarded by hisuniformitarian successors such as Lyell. One must remember that in orderfor the new discipline of geology to gain acceptance atintellectually-conservative Oxford it had to be demonstrably in accordwith the text-based biblical tradition at the university (Rudwick 2005:610), and from a modern perspective it is often easy to forget theeffect of such a major constraint on Buckland. He was unambiguous inpromoting a non-literal interpretation of the Genesis account ofcreation, revealed by a deep-time Earth history, something which, ifaccepted by natural scientists, '... may have been news to many inBuckland's audience [at Oxford], and to some a source of anxietyabout possible conflict with traditional religion' (Rudwick2005:611). He was also unambiguously supportive of the globaldistribution of flood deposits, and of Cuvierian catastrophism catastrophism(kətăs`trəfĭzəm), in geology, the doctrine that at intervals in the earth's history all living things have been destroyed by cataclysms (e.g., floods or earthquakes) and replaced by an entirely different population. . Perhapsit is not surprising that he was cautious about extending deep time tohumans, and in this debate his views would have dominated Britishnatural science, since, for the powerful figures in Britain, France andGermany it was simply Buckland who counted' (M. Sommer pers.comm.). Buckland's character, however admirable, does not excuse thedemonstrable objections he had to human antiquity, notably, for example,in his dismissal of the Red Lady of Paviland The Red Lady of Paviland is a fairly complete Upper Paleolithic-era human male skeleton dyed in red ochre discovered in 1823 by Rev. William Buckland in one of the Paviland limestone caves of the Gower Peninsula in south Wales. as post-diluvial (Sommer2007). It is clear that MacEnery's confidence in his ownobservations wavered, and it was probably the intellectual standing ofBuckland (and Cuvier, to whom MacEnery sent fauna and whom he visited inParis in 1831) that caused him to stand down. This was clearly theopinion of Rev. John Kenrick, who recalled that an eminent geologist andcolleague of MacEnery revealed that: 'M' Enery had no doubtwhatever as to the occurrence of flint implements in the loweraccumulation with extinct animals; this I know from repeatedconversation with him. But, Buckland would never hear of it; hence theconfusion in his views when he came to write his account of the cave andits contents' (Kenrick 1861, reproduced in Pengelly 1878: 157). Alater excavator ex��ca��va��torn.An instrument, such as a sharp spoon or curette, used in scraping out pathological tissue.excavator (eks´k , R.A.C. Godwin-Austen, refused to demur To dispute a legal Pleading or a statement of the facts being alleged through the use of a demurrer. ; emphaticallystating his case in a paper read before the Geological Society in 1840(Godwin Austen 1840, reproduced in Pengelly 1868: 496), although heconfused his own case by implying contemporary human bones which othersrefuted. So, with his scientific mentors unready or unwilling to acceptevidence of humans coexisting with 'ante-diluvial' animals(those that had existed before Noah's flood), and torn by hisheretical he��ret��i��cal?adj.1. Of or relating to heresy or heretics.2. Characterized by, revealing, or approaching departure from established beliefs or standards. views (Kennard 1945: 187), MacEnery entered into a state ofself-denial over his own observations, leading to confused, fragmentaryand contradictory written accounts of his work that remained unpublishedon his death in 1842. The manuscript was subsequently lost for some fiveyears, eventually being rediscovered sometime around 1846, among anumber of papers bought by a Mr Lear at an auction of MacEnery'spersonal effects in 1842. It was later published by Edward Vivian(MacEnery & Vivian 1859) in an edited form (effectively a version ofFasciculus fasciculus/fas��cic��u��lus/ (fah-sik��u-lus) pl. fasci��culi ? [L.] fascicle.cuneate fasciculus of medulla oblongata A) with a series of plates of faunal specimens andPalaeolithic stone artefacts that MacEnery had prepared before his death(MacEnery & Vivian 1859; Pengelly 1869; Kennard 1945). No plans orsections were included. The report to the Torquay and Tor Directory (see below) mentions aMacEnery manuscript then in the possession of Mr Lear, so it must haveresurfaced prior to November 1846. Its loss and ultimate uncertaintiesencouraged the Torquay Natural History Society to return to the cave in1846 in an attempt to resolve the "date of its occupation by humaninhabitants' (Pengelly 1878: 161). The Committee excavated newtrenches in two areas of the cave (near the entrance of Clinnick'sGallery and in the Lecture Hall), as well as a horizontal shaft thatextended eastwards underneath the stalagmite stalagmite:see stalactite and stalagmite. floor from MacEnery'sold trench in the Sloping Chamber (Pengelly 1878: 177-80). Satisfiedthat stone tools were associated with the remains of extinct animalsstratified stratified/strat��i��fied/ (strat��i-fid) formed or arranged in layers. strat��i��fiedadj.Arranged in the form of layers or strata. under a continuous stalagmite floor, R.A.C Godwin Austen reada report of the excavations before the Geological Society on 12 May1847, on behalf of Vivian and colleagues. The paper was subsequentlysubmitted for publication in the Society's transactions along withaccompanying illustrations (Kennard 1945). This publication was,however, suspended pending Buckland's validation. This was neverforthcoming and the paper remained unpublished, the only contemporaryaccount being published in the Torquay and Tor Directory for 6 November1846 (reprinted in Pengelly 1878: 162-6). Two decades later the British Association for the Advancement ofScience The British Association or the British Association for the Advancement of Science or the BA is a learned society with the object of promoting science, directing general attention to scientific matters, and facilitating interaction between scientific workers. funded an astonishing 16 seasons of year-round excavations inthe cavern (costing a total of 1900 [pounds sterling]), led by WilliamPengelly, who, as part of his campaign, published all the existingliterature on Kent's Cavern including several of MacEnery'sdraft 'fascicules', reworked manuscripts some of which wereintended for publication (Pengelly 1868, 1869, 1871, 1878, 1884). Thismassive body of work, totalling 776 quarto quar��to?n. pl. quar��tos1. The page size obtained by folding a whole sheet into four leaves.2. A book composed of pages of this size. pages, contains only onedrawing, MacEnery's sketch section of the Bear's Den, inFasciculus C (Pengelly 1869: 310). The rediscovered illustrations While addressing the Torquay Natural History Society on the subjectof Kent's Cavern in 1858, Vivian expressed regret at not being ableto show drawings from the recent excavations, as they were in Londonbeing engraved for a paper to be submitted to the Geological Society(Kennard 1945). The paper was never published, and, although Kennardguessed that the materials must still be with the Geological Society,the associated illustrations lay in their archive until we visited it inJanuary 2009. [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] Several illustrations exist that are pertinent to human antiquityin Britain, such as John Frere's illustration of handaxes found atHoxne in 1797 (Frere 1800) and MacEnery's illustration of stonetools from Kent's Cavern, produced in the 1830s but posthumouslypublished in a large version format of Cavern Researches in 1859(MacEnery & Vivian 1859: Plate T). The only illustration of aPleistocene palaeontological 'site' is the fanciful drawing of1821 by William Conybeare showing Buckland entering the Kirkdale cavereplete with live hyenas (e.g. Rudwick 1992: 41). But Geological Societylibrary reference LDGSL 146 (Figure 2) shows a plan of Kent'sCavern as it was in 1846, and, judging by the descriptions given byMacEnery, probably as it was in the 1820s. It provides our first glimpseof the original cave system, as experienced by the early visitors, andprovides the earliest illustrative evidence of a British excavationpertinent to the human antiquity debate, It shows an area much smallerthan the Kent's Cavern we know today, which is almost entirely theproduct of Pengelly's major excavations that cleared blockedpassages, revealed numerous new passages and undervaultings and draineda lake in one chamber. The limited accessibility revealed by theillustration also aids our understanding of why certain areas wereselected for excavation, and makes sense of the route normally taken byguides through the cavern: "We shall commence then with the common entrance [by 1824 theNorth Entrance]--thence follow the direct course of the upper Gallery[i.e. the Great Chamber, Lecture Hall and SW Passage] and its lateralSally Ports--we shall return on our steps as far as the vestibule vestibule/ves��ti��bule/ (ves��ti-bul) a space or cavity at the entrance to a canal.vestib��ularvestibule of aorta? a small space at root of the aorta. , orsloping chamber, and, without stopping there advance into the cave atits extremity--from which we shall turn on the left into the region ofthe Bear's Den or the Water--We shall then return thence thence?adv.1. From that place; from there: flew to Helsinki and thence to Moscow.2. From that circumstance or source; therefrom.3. Archaic From that time; thenceforth. by theoven, retrace our steps by the arcade, traverse once more the slopingchamber in our way to the wolf's den, which forms its right branch,and finally terminate our labors [sic] in the grand vestibule'(MacEnery Fasciculus A, reprinted in Pengelly 1869: 218). Crucially, the plan also records the position of two of the 1846Exploration Committee's finds, noting flint artefacts under thickstalagmite in the Lecture Hall and close to Clinnick's Gallery. Itwas these findings, underneath undisturbed intact stalagmite that, 13years before the events at Amiens (Gamble & Kruszynski 2009), shouldhave firmly won the case for a deep human antiquity; although this wasnot to be so. Accompanying this plan is the section in Figure 3 (GeologicalSociety library reference LDGSL 146) showing the deposits through partof the cave. Although there is no scale, the stratigraphy and therelative proportions of each deposit fit precisely with the descriptionsof the 1846 excavations in the Sloping Chamber, immediately adjacent toMacEnery's earlier diggings (Pengelly 1878: 163). The section showsthe classic upper sequence of Kent's Cavern: black mould(containing Holocene archaeology) overlying overlyingsuffocation of piglets by the sow. The piglets may be weak from illness or malnutrition, the sow may be clumsy or ill, the pen may be inadequate in size or poorly designed so that piglets cannot escape. a thick granular stalagmitefloor, which in turn caps the fossiliferous fos��sil��if��er��ous?adj.Containing fossils.Adj. 1. fossiliferous - bearing or containing fossils; "fossiliferous strata" and implementiferous caveearth. It also agrees fully with MacEnery's textual description,showing a thick and undisturbed stalagmite floor capping the cave earth,which is shown to have contained a number of large blocks, again inagreement with later descriptions of the cave earth. It is unclear who drew the illustrations reproduced in Figures 2and 3. The excavations were superintended by the Torquay Natural HistorySociety, in which Vivian and Pengelly were leading figures. As Vivianwas an artist it is possible that he drew the illustrations himself--theannotations on the drawings are certainly very similar to known samplesof Vivian's hand-writing. However, one cannot rule out thepossibility that they were drawn by one of the excavation team, or eventhat they were drawn by the skilled hand of a person not routinelyconnected with the excavation. All one can say is that that they weredrawn by of on behalf of members of the Kent's Cavern sub-committeeof the Torquay Natural History Society, who conducted the excavation. The third illustration (Figure 4) in the Geological Society'sarchive is perhaps the most interesting, and would have remained hiddenwere it not for the kind attentions of the Society's assistantlibrarian Wendy Cawthorn, who suggested we check the library'scollection of ephemera e��phem��er��a?n.A plural of ephemeron.ephemeraNoun, plitems designed to last only for a short time, such as programmes or postersNoun 1. . This is a drawing entitled 'A View of theinterior of Kent's Cavern near the entrance taken from theexcavation' by the artist John Marten marten,name for carnivorous, largely arboreal mammals (genus Martes) of the weasel family, widely distributed in North America, Europe, and central Asia. Martens are larger, heavier-bodied animals than weasels, with thick fur and bushy tails. , who was active in Devon inthe 1820s and 1830s (http://www.devon.gov.uk/localstudies). This is oneof only two drawings of the cavernas it was before the excavations ofI865-1880 changed it forever, and the only one to show the location ofthe earliest excavations. It shows an intact stalagmite floor slopingdramatically upwards away from an excavation in the foreground, withfigures examining the higher deposits in the background. The picture ishoused in a folio containing various illustrations dating from the early1800s, and on the same page is mounted another drawing by John Martenentitled 'Cazalet's Cave at Anstey's Cove'. This isa vital due regarding the date and origin of the Kent's Cavernpicture. [FIGURE 3 OMITTED] Mrs Cazalet was an important local fossil collector who appears tohave had the pick of MacEnery's early finds. Based on the frequencywith which MacEnery mentions Mrs Cazalet (or 'Mrs C') beinginvolved at Kent's Cavern in his manuscript and survivingcorrespondence, Kennard (1945) made a compelling case that she and herhusband had both assisted in and financed the excavations. As PrivateChaplain of Tor Abbey, MacEnery presumably pre��sum��a��ble?adj.That can be presumed or taken for granted; reasonable as a supposition: presumable causes of the disaster. had limited means and almostcertainly could not have afforded to fund such a major excavationhimself. We know that Mrs Cazalet gave 'a fine series' fromher collection from Kent's Cavern to the Geological Society inFebruary 1826 (accessioned as GS 413-421 and eventually passing to themuseum of the Geological Survey; Kennard 1945), and it seems plausiblethat Marten's illustrations were part of that donation. MacEneryseems to have started to down-scale his work by December 1826 (a letterfrom Beeke to Trevelyan, 6 December 1826, published in Pengelly 1878:145, states that MacEnery thought there was little more to be found),while the Cazalets left Torquay for 'beyond Newton' in June ofthat year (letter from MacEnery to Trevelyan, 19 June 1826, published inPengelly 1878: 145). We surmise therefore that the drawing wasundertaken by Marten sometime between November 1825 and June 1826;probably commissioned by the Cazelets. [FIGURE 4 OMITTED] Judging by the proposed date, the sloping floor, and the shape ofthe roof portrayed in the Marten drawing, we suggest that this drawingmust be of MacEnery's earliest excavations in the 'Vestibuleor Sloping Chamber'--his 'main excavation ... situated abouthalfway down the declivity de��cliv��i��ty?n. pl. de��cliv��i��tiesA downward slope, as of a hill.[Latin dcl of the sloping chamber under the rightwall' (MacEnery Fasciculus B, reprinted in Pengelly 1869: 281). Assuch it provides a unique insight into the nature of the cave in itsearliest days of excavation. The other illustration, previously published in the cave'sguidebook, is presented here for completeness but with additionalinformation on its origin (Figure 5). It is by George Rowe and wasissued in 1835 as part of his Views of Torquay and Neighbourhood- MiddleSeries (entry S130 athttp://www.devon.gov.uk/localstudies/100143/1.html). Rowe was an artistand drawing master from Exeter esteemed for his topographicallithographs of resorts in the south-west and south of England(http://adbonline.anu.edu.au/biogs/A060075b.htm). In 1862, following aneventful period in the Australian goldfields, a group of hiswatercolours won a medal in the Victorian Section of the LondonInternational Exhibition for 'faithful and beautifuldelineation'. Rowe's drawing is entitled 'The Great Hall,Kent's Cavern', and shows a group of men and women exploringthe cave by candle-light, perhaps one of the occasional guided toursmentioned by MacEnery and others. Its title presumably indicates that itis a representation of the Great Chamber, although if this is the case,then the many large blocks later recorded by Pengelly (1884) are notshown. The current owner of the cavern, Mr Nick Powe, believes it toshow part of the Vestibule (pers. comm. 2009) and when viewed from thePassage of Urns, the ceiling architecture would certainly fit with thisopinion. No indications of any excavations are shown. [FIGURE 5 OMITTED] It is undear what Marten's or Rowe's influences were,although in a broader thematic and stylistic sense both drawings ofKent's Carero reflect a contemporary concern with the wild andromantic nature of caves that influenced contemporary artists such asJohn Martin (not to be confused here with John Marten), poets such asShelley, Keats and Byron (Sommer 2003, 2007), and even WilliamConybeare's drawings of Buckland at Kirkdale and Gailenreuth(Rudwick 1992, 2005). Conclusions Although 1859 is rightly remembered as the year in whichDarwin's On the origin of species was first published, the firstpublic airing of his theory--to the Linnean society--occurred in 1856,the year of Buckland's death. In the case of Kent's Cavern,Buckland's role in the debate over human antiquity can only be seenas a disabling factor; it would be one of his last pupils, Charles Lyelland his contemporaries in the few years following Buckland's deaththat finally put the matter to test. These recently rediscovered imagesprovide a rare glimpse at the shape of Kent's Cavernas it wasduring the earliest investigations and the first illustrativeconfirmation of the descriptions provided by MacEnery, Vivian andPengelly as the debate raged. Given the iconic status of Kent'sCavern in the history of Archaeology and continuing studies into thePalaeolithic of Britain, we here draw them to public attention, after160-180 years. They provide further evidence of the stronginterconnection between art and science in the nineteenth century and,we suggest, allow us to formally recognise, in retrospect at least, JohnMacEnery as being the first to unequivocally demonstrate humanantiquity, in Kent's Cavern, as early as 1825. Acknowledgements We are deeply indebted to Wendy Cawthorn, assistant librarian atthe Geological Society library in London, for her kind assistance, andparticularly for her critical role in the discovery of the Martendrawing, and to the Geological Society for permission to publish theseillustrations. We also thank Barry Chandler (Curator of Collections,Torquay Museum) for his friendly assistance and for permission to useFigure 5. Becky Harrison kindly helped PP with background research;Robin Dennell and Nathan Schlanger critically commented on a draft ofthe paper, and we benefited from discussion with Marianne Sommer. CliveGamble's referee's comments were both encouraging andcritically helpful and Martin Carver's comments and editing werevery welcome. We thank them all. Received: 13 February 2009; Revised: 27 March 2009; Accepted: 31March 2009 References BUCKLAND, W. 1823. Reliquiae re��liq��ui��ae?pl.n.Remains, as of fossil organisms.[Latin, remains; see relic.] Diluvianae: observations on theorganic remains contained in caves, fissures and diluvial gravelattesting the action of an universal deluge. London: John Murray. FRERE, J. 1800. Account of flint weapons discovered at Hoxne inSuffolk. Archaeologia 13: 204-5, Plates XIV-XV. GAMBLE, L. & R. KRUSZYNSKL 2009. John Evans, Joseph Prestwichand the stone that shattered the time barrier. Antiquity 83: 461-75. GRAYSON, D.K. 1983. The establishment of human antiquity. New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of :Academic Press. KENNARD, A.S. 1945. The early digs in Kent's Hole, Torquay,and Mrs Cazalet. Proceedings of the Geological Association 56(3):156-213. MACENERY, J, & E. VIVIAN. 1859. Cavern researches, ordiscoveries of organic remains, and of British and Roman reliques, inthe caves of Kent's Hole, Anstis Cove, Chudleigh, and Berry Head.London: Simpkin, Marshall & Co. PENGELLY, W. 1868. The literature of Kent's Cavern, Part I,Transactions of the Devonshire Association for the Advancement ofScience, Literature and Art 1: 469-522. -- 1869. The literature of Kent's Cavern, Part II.Transactions of the Devonshire Association for the Advancement ofScience, Literature and Art 3: 191-482. -- 1871. The literature of Kent's Cavern, Part III.Transactions of the Devonshire Association for the Advancement ofScience, Literature and Art 4: 467-90. -- 1878. The literature of Kent's Cavern, Part IV.Transactions of the Devonshire Association for the Advancement ofScience, Literature and Art 10: 141-81. -- 1884. The literature of Kent's Cavern, Part V. Transactionsof the Devonshire Association for the Advancement of Science, Literatureand Art 14: 189-434. RUDWICK, M.J.S. 1992. Scenes from deep time: early pictorialrepresentations of the prehistoric world. Chicago (IL): University ofChicago Press The University of Chicago Press is the largest university press in the United States. It is operated by the University of Chicago and publishes a wide variety of academic titles, including The Chicago Manual of Style, dozens of academic journals, including . -- 2005. Bursting the limits of time: the reconstruction ofgeohistory in the age of revolution. Chicago (IL): University of ChicagoPress. SOMMER, M. 2003. The romantic cave? The scientific and poeticquests for subterranean spaces in Britain. Earth Sciences History 22(2):172-208. -- 2007. Bones and ochre: the curious afterlife of the Red Lady ofPaviland. Cambridge (MA) & London: Harvard University Press The Harvard University Press is a publishing house, a division of Harvard University, that is highly respected in academic publishing. It was established on January 13, 1913. In 2005, it published 220 new titles. . WESTON, IL 2008. John Traherne, FSA FSA Financial Services AuthorityFSA Food Standards Agency (UK)FSA Farm Service Agency (USDA)FSA Financial Services Agency (Japan), and William Buckland's'Red Lady'. The Antiquaries Journal 88: 347-64. Internet resources (http://www.devon.gov.uk/localstudies/100143/1.html)--last accessedMarch 2009 (http://adbonline.anu.edu.au/biogs/A060075b.htm)--last accessedMarch 2009 M.J. White (1) & P.B. Pettitt (2) (1) Department of Archaeology, Durham University, South Road,Durham DH1 3LE, UK (Email: m.j.white@durham.ac.uk) (2) Department of Archaeology, University of Sheffield The University of Sheffield is a research university, located in Sheffield in South Yorkshire, England. ReputationSheffield was the Sunday Times University of the Year in 2001 and has consistently appeared as their top 20 institutions. , NorthgateHouse, West Street, Sheffield S1 4ET, UK (Email:p.pettitt@sheffield.ac.uk)