The curing of hides and skins in European prehistory.

The curing of hides and skins in European prehistory. Introduction Like all organic materials, prehistoric hides and skins arepreserved only under specific circumstances, in our area mostly inanaerobic anaerobic/an��aer��o��bic/ (an?ah-ro��bik)1. lacking molecular oxygen.2. growing, living, or occurring in the absence of molecular oxygen; pertaining to an anaerobe. environments.(1) Thus there are numerous examples of leatherand fur found in waterlogged conditions from the Roman period onwards. However, prehistoric leather finds are extremely scarce. Until thefind in 1991 of the man from the Hauslabjoch (the Iceman IcemanBody of a man found sealed in a glacier in the Tirolean Ötztal Alps in 1991 and dated to 3300 BC. It has revealed significant details of everyday life during the Neolithic Period. ) in northernItaly Northern Italy comprises of two areas belonging to NUTS level 1: North-West (Nord-Ovest): Aosta Valley, Piedmont, Lombardy, Liguria North-East (Nord-Est): Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Veneto, Trentino-Alto Adige/S��dtirol, Emilia-Romagna (Hopfel et al. 1992) with all his frozen equipment, only twoleather (or fur) finds were known from the European Neolithic, both frompeat bogs: a sheath of a flint dagger from Wiepenkathen near Stade,Germany (Forbes 1966: figure 1) and a fur poncho from Denmark (Hald1980: 56, no 31), the latter dated palynologically. Bronze and Iron Age fur and leather finds are known from peat bogs,for example in Denmark (Hald 1980), Germany (Dieck 1965) and theNetherlands (Groenman-van Waateringe 1970; 1990), from oak-log coffins(Hald 1972) or salt mines such as Hallstatt (Piggott 1965: plate XXVII;Barth 1992a; 1992b). These leather finds have only been preserved by a secondary tanningprocess, such as caused by the acid milieu in peat bogs and the saltyenvironment of the mines in the Austrian Alps (Salzkammergut). Thepreservation in oak-log coffins of tiny pieces of leather falls into thesame category, since oak provides a very good tanning medium. Thus thesefinds cannot be used to identify the original tanning process. The earliest prehistoric leather find from a waterlogged deposit isa bag from the late Iron Age site of La Tene La T��ne?adj.Of or relating to a late Iron Age Celtic civilization dating from the fifth to the first century b.c. in Switzerland (Forbes1966: 16). If we assume the use of leather clothing by the Iceman to becharacteristic of the Neolithic (cf. Winiger 1995), how can we explainthe lack of such finds from waterlogged deposits with otherwiseexcellent preservation of organic material?(2) In an attempt to get more information about the environment of theIceman and of the animals whose hides were used for his clothing, someloose animal hairs of his equipment were prepared for pollen analysis Analysis of the distribution of pollen grains of various species contained in surface layer deposits, especially peat bogs and lake sediments, from which a record of past climate may be inferred. .The results were remarkable (Groenman-van Waateringe 1993). The pollengrains in the sample could be divided into two categories: pollen withnormal size and normal colour, and pollen approximately half the normalsize and pale in colour (FIGURE 1). These latter pollen grains comprised44% of the total. The two pollen categories have been explained as beingfirst, the pollen blown into the hide when man was wearing it asclothing (the pollen of normal size and colour); and second, the pollenblown into the hide when the animal was still roaming through the woods,i.e. the small and pale pollen. It was assumed that the size and otherqualities of this latter pollen had been affected by some kind ofpreparation of the hide (Groenman-van Waateringe 1995). [Figure 1 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] Technique of curing hides and skins Hides and skins are treated to arrest their ultimate decay throughsalting, drying or tanning. Tanning will chemically change the pelt peltthe undressed, raw skin of a wild animal with the fur in place. If from a sheep or goat there is a short growth of wool or mohair on the skin. torender it resistant to water and decomposition. Several tanning methodsare known, either as vegetable tanning, mineral, oil and aldehyde aldehyde(ăl`dəhīd)[alcohol + New Lat. dehydrogenatus=dehydrogenated], any of a class of organic compounds that contain the carbonyl group, and in which the carbonyl group is bonded to at least one hydrogen; the general tannage (which is the modern equivalent of the ancient smoke tanning(Forbes 1966: 5)) or as a combination of these. The changes broughtabout by vegetable and mineral tanning are irreversible, whereassmoke-tanning is not. In Roman and Medieval times This is the article on the Medieval Times dinner theater chain. For the historical time period, see Middle Ages.Medieval Times Dinner & Tournament vegetable tanning was the rule (cf.Groenman-van Waateringe 1967: 19-21; 1984: 15-17). This technique wasapparently not used until the late Iron Age. In the find from the Hauslabjoch, which consists of a variety ofanimal hides, skins and calf leather (Groenman-van Waateringe 1993), wehave, for the first time, the possibility of establishing theprehistoric curing methods without any secondary influence. Apreliminary investigation of the Hauslabjoch material at theWestdeutsche Gerbereischule in Reutlingen, Germany, has not yet providedunambiguous evidence for the curing process used. Only very smallsamples were available for the analysis of possible tanning agents.Lange (1992) supposed that vegetable tanning was the rule at that time,whereas other methods like mineral tannage, with mainly chromium,aluminium or zirconium zirconium(zərkō`nēəm), metallic chemical element; symbol Zr; at. no. 40; at. wt. 91.22; m.p. about 1,852°C;; b.p. 4,377°C;; sp. gr. 6.5 at 20°C;; valence +2, +3, or +4. salts or oil tannage, would not have been usedbecause of lack of raw materials. He compared samples ofvegetable-tanned modern leather with the material from the Hauslabjochby thin-section chromatography. The modern samples showed a strongfluorescence, as vegetable-tanned leather should do, whereas the5000-year-old samples from the Hauslabjoch gave a very weak signal.Nevertheless Lange supposed that something like vegetable tanning hadtaken place. Experiments (TABLES 1-2) TABLE 1. Mean size in [micro]m, standard deviation, percentage ofreduction of 100 birch pollen grains per sample and presence/absence ofdecolouring. [Summation]sample no. and description [bar]x n-1 1 fresh birch pollen 31.85 3.04 2 pollen in oak-bark tan 7 days 27.87 2.65 3 pollen heated to 60 [degrees] C 2 days 27.98 2.08 4 idem 8 days 28.00 2.39 5 in formaldehyde 37% 7 days 31.01 3.72 6 in dry NaCl 7 days 29.56 2.34 7 idem 60 [degrees] C 27.05 2.34 8 in vegetable oil 60 [degrees] C 27.27 3.09 9 in vegetable oil 35 days 29.51 3.5110 under reduced hot-smoking 12 hours 30.19 1.7411 idem in rabbit skin 28.55 1.8512 under oxidized hot-smoking 12 hours 28.89 2.8913 idem in greased rabbit skin 27.20 2.26 % ofsample no. and description reduction decolouring 1 fresh birch pollen - - 2 pollen in oak-bark tan 7 days 12.5 - 3 pollen heated to 60 [degrees] C 2 days 12.2 - 4 idem 8 days 12.1 - 5 in formaldehyde 37% 7 days 2.6 + 6 in dry NaCl 7 days 7.2 - 7 idem 60 [degrees] C 13.6 - 8 in vegetable oil 60 [degrees] C 14.4 - 9 in vegetable oil 35 days 7.3 -10 under reduced hot-smoking 12 hours 5.2 -11 idem in rabbit skin 10.4 -12 under oxidized hot-smoking 12 hours 9.3 -13 idem in greased rabbit skin 14.6 + TABLE 2. Mean size in [micro]m, standard deviation, percentage ofreduction of 100 hazel pollen grains per sample and presence/absence ofdecolouring. [Summation]sample no. and description [bar]x n-1 1 fresh hazel pollen 35.52 2.39 2 in oak bark tan 3 months 28.47 1.69 3 heated to 60 [degrees] C 14 days 29.56 2.37 4 idem with chicken fat 30.58 1.77 5 in formaldehyde 20% 3 months 27.82 2.26 6 in dry NaCl 60 [degrees] C 14 days 28.52 1.59 7 deep frozen 14 days 29.74 1.74 8 in smoking barrel 28.21 1.69 45 [degrees] C 6.5 hours 9 idem 3 days 30.19 1.8710 in deerskin 40 [degrees] C 25 hours 30.78 1.6611 idem for 3 days 30.84 2.7012 in roe deer skin rubbed in 31.56 2.76 with goose fat, hot-smoking 1 day13 idem 3 days 32.55 2.55 % ofsample no. and description reduction decolouring 1 fresh hazel pollen - - 2 in oak bark tan 3 months 19.8 - 3 heated to 60 [degrees] C 14 days 16.6 - 4 idem with chicken fat 13.9 - 5 in formaldehyde 20% 3 months 21.7 + 6 in dry NaCl 60 [degrees] C 14 days 19.7 - 7 deep frozen 14 days 16.3 - 8 in smoking barrel 20.6 - 45 [degrees] C 6.5 hours 9 idem 3 days 15.0 -10 in deerskin 40 [degrees] C 25 hours 13.3 -11 idem for 3 days 14.5 -12 in roe deer skin rubbed in 11.1 + with goose fat, hot-smoking 1 day13 idem 3 days 8.3 + To identify which curing process affects pollen grains in such away that they shrink to between a half and a third of their normal sizeand become glassy-pale, experiments were set up, partly in thelaboratory and partly in the Archaeological Theme Park ARCHEON in Alphenaan de Rijn, prov. of South Holland, Netherlands. Three series of experiments were carried out: first a trialexperiment in 1992 with cold-smoking,(3) which had no effect on thepollen; second a series of experiments both in the laboratory and in thefield. In this series, carried out in 1993, fresh birch pollen was used(TABLE 1, no. 1), and in the third series, carried out in 1994, freshhazel pollen (TABLE 2, no. 1). In the latter two experiments differenttanning methods were simulated: vegetable tanning (oak-bark tan),salting (dry NaCl), fat (oil and chicken fat) and aldehyde(formaldehyde) tanning. Heating and deep-freezing was applied to analysethe influence of drying-out. Duration, temperature and solutionpercentages varied (see TABLES 1 & 2 for details). Methods wereadapted to the kind of experiment. For the experiments of TABLES 1-2,nos. 3-4 and 6-7, catkins were placed on a Petri dish pe��tri dishn.A shallow circular dish with a loose-fitting cover, used to culture bacteria or other microorganisms.Petri disha shallow, circular, glass or disposable plastic dish used to grow bacteria on solid media such as agar. ; for experimentsTABLE 1, nos. 2, 5, 8-9, and TABLE 2, nos. 2 and 5, catkins wereimmersed in the liquid; for experiments TABLE 1, nos. 10 & 12, andTABLE 2, nos. 8-9, catkins were sewn in a small bag made of net curtain net curtainn → visilloand hung in a smoking barrel or above a fire. The procedures for theexperiments with hides and skins were as follows. To begin with, theoriginal pollen content of the hides and skins used in the experimentswere analysed by taking small pieces of each hide and skin. Then otherpieces of these hides and skins were rubbed with fresh pollen of birchand hazel, subjected to the experiments and analysed. Because the sizeof pollen varies in one and the same taxon taxon(pl. taxa), in biology, a term used to denote any group or rank in the classification of organisms, e.g., class, order, family. (Faegri et al. 1989: 233-5)the mean size of the pollen used was established by measuring 100 grainsof each taxon. All samples were prepared according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. the acetolysis method ofErdtmann (1960) and mounted in glycerol glycerol,glycerin,glycerine,or 1,2,3-propanetriol(prō`pāntrī'ŏl), CH2OHCHOHCH2OH, colorless, odorless, sweet-tasting, syrupy liquid. .(4) The hot-smoking experiments of 1993 and 1994 (TABLE 1, no. 11,TABLE 2, nos. 12-13) applied the Amerindian way of smoking skins asdescribed by Binford (1972: 42-4). In a clayey soil a square pit wasdug, c. 70 cm deep and 50-60 cm wide. The clay is of importance becausethe fire made in this pit baked the sides, resulting in extra heatbecause of reflection. A skin rubbed with fat and pollen was stretchedover a wooden frame like a kind of tepee tepeeor tipi(both: tē`pē), typical dwelling of Native North Americans living on the Great Plains. It was usually made by arranging tent poles into a conical frame and spreading skins, usually buffalo hide, tightly over . The fife in the pit wasstarted as a big woodfire to create a layer of hot charcoal on whichfresh cow clung was thrown. The moist dung on the blazing charcoalresulted in a high production of smoke. The frame, with the furry sideof the skin facing upwards, was placed over the pit and the sides wereclosed with grass sods. The smoke could only leave through the skin. Thesmoking lasted for 12 hours (TABLE 1, no. 11). In another set of experiments, in which a piece of skin was hungdirectly above an open fire, oxygen had free access to the process(TABLE 1, no. 13). Results (TABLES 1-2) It is obvious that all treatments used in our experiments haveresulted in a reduction in pollen size compared to the untreated controlsamples (TABLES 1-2, no. 1). In most experiments, decreasing sizeresulted in a stronger colouring. Pollen grain pollen grainn.A microspore of seed plants, containing a male gametophyte. size may change underdifferent chemical procedures, either increasing or decreasing (Moore etal. 1991). The exact chemical processes involved are not clear. The standard deviation is higher in fresh birch pollen compared tohazel and it varies much more in the birch pollen experiments than inthe hazel ones. The general decrease of the hazel pollen was much higherthan in the birch pollen experiments. This may be because of thedifferences in the thickness of the pollen wall. The highest reduction took place in the first series of experimentsunder the influence of oxidized hot-smoking in combination with atreatment with fat (TABLE 1, no. 13). In the second series this was thecase under the influence of formaldehyde (TABLE 2, no. 5), incombination with a certain decolouring. This decolouring was also foundin the birch pollen treated with formaldehyde (TABLE 1, no. 5). However,the shrinkage of the pollen was minimal. In the field experiments with hazel pollen the shrinkage is lessthan in the laboratory experiments, but in samples 12 and 13 some pollenwith a glassy-pale appearance were found (FIGURE 2). Hot-smoking of agreased rabbit skin (TABLE 1, no. 13) provided a fair amount of palepollen, and in its series, the greatest reduction in size. Without fat,the colour of the pollen was not affected. However, a higher decrease inpollen size compared to smoking of pollen alone (TABLE 1, 11 vs 10) mayhave been the result of the presence of a certain amount of natural fatin the skin. The experiment with pollen in a vegetable oil heated to 60?? C resulted in the second highest reduction in size (TABLE 1, no. 8). [Figure 2 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] Some general conclusions resulting from these experiments are: 1 heating tends to strengthen the decrease of the pollen grains(cf. TABLE 1, nos. 6 vs 7 and 9 vs 8) 2 formaldehyde may influence pollen size considerably, but itspecifically causes the decolouring of pollen. 3 the influence of fat in the process of curing skins is thecrucial factor for the deformation of pollen. The explanation has to be found in the drying-out of pollen (1) andthe release of aldehydes from the fat by smoking, which affect both thesize and colour of the pollen (2-3). According to Ruiter (1969: 72),aldehydes are amongst the most important components of smoke. Thedifferences in the reduction in size between the neolithic material andour experiments is probably caused by the use of fresh pollen in ourexperiments. But also the materials used in the experiments (woodspecies, kind of fat) may have influenced the process. The effect of drying-out on pollen outline, size and colour hasalso been demonstrated by a study on a peat core, taken in theEngbertsdijksveen bog area, in the eastern part of the Netherlands. Partof the palynological samples and those for chemical analysis and ashcontent were dried for 65 hours at a temperature of 60 ?? C. Thoughdrying of palynological samples is unusual, in this case it wasnecessary: peat stratigraphy stratigraphy,branch of geology specifically concerned with the arrangement of layered rocks (see stratification). Stratigraphy is based on the law of superposition, which states that in a normal sequence of rock layers the youngest is on top and the oldest on the may not be entirely horizontal, so timeboundaries may cross the cutting surfaces. A comparison of the dryweight of the various subsamples may provide a check on theirstratigraphical relationship. In general, the drying had not affectedthe quality of the microfossils. However, in a number of samples, somepollen grains were pale and/or wrinkled. This is most likely caused bythe drying process. In earlier studies of the same bog (Van Geel 1978;Dupont & Brenninkmeijer 1984) this category of pollen is notreported. Moreover, the pale and shrunken shrunk��en?v.A past participle of shrink.shrunkenVerba past participle of shrinkAdjectivereduced in sizeAdj. 1. pollen grains occur mainly inthe Sphagnum sphagnum(sfăg`nəm)or peat moss,any species of the large and widely distributed genus Sphagnum, economically the most valuable moss. imbricatum/section acutifolia layers and hardly in theSphagnum cuspidatum layers. It is feasible that the more compactSphagnum cuspidatum protected the pollen grains better from drying out. Final remarks The unique, deep-frozen hides and skins belonging to the equipmentof the man from the Hauslabjoch provided for the first time thepossibility of investigating the methods used in curing hides and skinsin prehistoric times, without any secondary influence. Pollen data from the Iceman's clothing and data from tanningexperiments with fresh pollen point to a process of smoke-drying incombination with the use of fat. The yellow-brown colour of the materialpoints in the same direction. Hide-smoking is a process well known from ethnohistorical sources(Forbes 1966). Binford (1972) used it as an example of how to usemiddle-range theory in archaeology. It can be used in combination with afatty agent rubbed into the hide, to keep the hide or skin soft andpliable. The effect of the smoke is to dry the skin or hide and to dyeit a yellow colour (`the thick smoke that comes out of it, especiallyowing to owing toprep.Because of; on account of: I couldn't attend, owing to illness.owing toprep → debido a, por causa dethe lack of any exit ... fastens itself to the skin which itsmoke-dries and dyes a yellow color', and `Each side is smoked inthis manner until the pores are closed, and the skin has becomethoroughly toughened with its color changed from white to a kind ofbrown') (citations after Binford 1972: 42-4). The weak fluorescence signal in the Hauslabjoch material (Lange1992) is probably caused by the presence of small amounts of phenols inthe smoke (Ruiter 1969). They contain, among other things,pyrogallolether, and pyrogallol pyrogallol(pī'rōgăl`ōl)or pyrogallic acid(–ĭk), C6H6O3, white, crystalline, aromatic compound with a biting taste; it is poisonous. is an important agent in vegetabletanning. The assumption that vegetable tanning was not used in theconservation of the hides and skins of the Iceman is strengthened byanother experiment. A piece of fallow-deer skin with a known pollen content was put forseveral weeks in a small container with oak-bark tannin tannin,tannic acid,or gallotannic acid,astringent vegetable product found in a wide variety of plants. Sources include the bark of oak, hemlock, chestnut, and mangrove; the leaves of certain sumacs; and plant galls. which containedno pollen at the start of the experiment. Analysis of the hairs of thefallow-deer skin and the tanning agent at the end of the experimentshowed that the fallow-deer skin had lost its pollen to the oak barktannin (FIGURE 3). During vegetable tanning -- lasting a year or more --the hides and skins are regularly turned in the tannin bath, which makesthe chance of pollen dissipating into the tanning agent even greaterthan in our experiment, where the piece of fallow-deer skin was notmoved around in the tannin. [Figure 3 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] If smoke-drying had been the usual method for curing hides andskins in prehistoric times, the lack of such remains would be easilyunderstandable. Under water-logged conditions a smoke-dried hide or skinwill not be preserved, because the curing method used is not anirreversible process Noun 1. irreversible process - any process that is not reversiblephysical process, process - a sustained phenomenon or one marked by gradual changes through a series of states; "events now in process"; "the process of calcification begins later for boys than for . This may also be illustrated by the following. Remains of beaver hats, widely used in postmedieval times in a citylike Amsterdam, have never been found in excavations, which producedmasses of vegetable-tanned leather goods like shoes, knife sheaths etc.It is, however, known that the beaver skins used for these hats wereobtained in North America North America,third largest continent (1990 est. pop. 365,000,000), c.9,400,000 sq mi (24,346,000 sq km), the northern of the two continents of the Western Hemisphere. from the local native American population (cf.also Spriggs 1998). It seems reasonable to suppose that these skins wereprepared in the Amerindian way -- by smoking. Acknowledgements. The authors want to thank C.D. Troostheide forthe experiments carried out in the laboratory of the IPP (Internet Printing Protocol) A protocol for printing and managing print jobs over the Internet using HTTP. Initially conceived by Novell, Xerox and others, the IETF made it a standard in 2000 that includes authentication and encryption. See printing protocol and LPD. and J. Flammanfor his assistance in the experiments carried out in ARCHEON. We want tothank Christine Jefferis for improving our English, and referees fortheir suggestions to improve the text in general. (1) Leather preservation can also occur under extremely drycircumstances, for example under desert conditions, or dry-frozen, asthe find from the Hauslabjoch. (2) The explanation that the circumstances in the Swiss lakesidevillages were too alkaline cannot be maintained as numerous leatherfinds have been found in alkaline clay deposits, for example the Romanleather finds from Valkenburg ZH (Groenman-van Waateringe 1967). (3) Cold smoking was done by hanging a framed piece of deerskin deer��skin?n.1. Leather made from the hide of a deer.2. A garment made from deerskin.Noun 1. deerskin - leather from the hide of a deer with a known pollen content for 7 days c. 2.5 m above a small fire in areconstructed Bronze Age Bronze Age,period in the development of technology when metals were first used regularly in the manufacture of tools and weapons. Pure copper and bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, were used indiscriminately at first; this early period is sometimes called the house in ARCHEON. (4) All the material, including the hair belonging to theIceman's equipment, has been treated and embedded alike becausepollen size is known to be influenced by various methods of preparationand mounting. References BARTH, F.E. 1992a. Zu den Tragsacken aus dem SalzbergwerkHallstatt, Archaeologia Austriaca 76: 121-7. 1992b. Prahistorisches Schuhwerk aus den Salzbergwerken Hallstattund Durrnberg/Hallein, in A. Lippert & K. 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Kilian, The Netherlands Centre for Geo-Ecological Research,Department of Palynology and Paleo/actuo-Ecology, Kruislaan 318, 1098 SMAmsterdam, Netherlands. Received 30 January 1999, revised 15 May 1999, accepted 22 July1999, revised 3 September 1999.