'A world of ground': terrestrial space in Marlowe's Tamburlaine plays.

'A world of ground': terrestrial space in Marlowe's Tamburlaine plays. In the Tamburlaine plays Marlowe adapted for dramatic purposes whatJorge Luis Borges Noun 1. Jorge Luis Borges - Argentinian writer remembered for his short stories (1899-1986)Borges, Jorge Borges termed 'the vast geographies of Ariosto'.These purposes brought the English drama Drama was introduced to England from Europe by the Romans, and auditoriums were constructed across the country for this purpose. By the medieval period, the mummers' plays had developed, a form of early street theatre associated with the Morris dance, concentrating on themes such into a close relation with thenew cosmography cos��mog��ra��phy?n. pl. cos��mog��ra��phies1. The study of the visible universe that includes geography and astronomy.2. of Ortelius and others. Marlowe was exploiting thegrowing awareness of the world's full spatial context--an awarenesspeculiar to Western Europe Western EuropeThe countries of western Europe, especially those that are allied with the United States and Canada in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (established 1949 and usually known as NATO). in his time. In Part One of Tamburlaine hefocuses on the establishment of his hero's imperial power: firstEmperor of Asia, then Emperor of Africa. This symbolically balancedshaping of his military career is Marlowe's own interpretation.Among other spatially sensitive features, Part Two presents spectacularmap-based journeys of a kind prominently exemplified in Ariosto'sOrlando furioso Orlando FuriosoAriosto’s romantic epic; actually a continuation of Boiardo’s plot. [Ital. Lit.: Orlando Furioso]See : Epic . ********** Marlowe's geographical awareness will strike any reader of theTamburlaine plays. At first critics were content to note the merefrequency of exotic place names, and a comparison with Milton'spractice in Paradise Lost Paradise LostMilton’s epic poem of man’s first disobedience. [Br. Lit.: Paradise Lost]See : Epic became a commonplace. There were, after all,over forty different place names mentioned in Part One of Tamburlaineand over eighty in Part Two, and some of these names were introduced notonly once but several times and then given even greater salience sa��li��ence? also sa��li��en��cyn. pl. sa��li��en��ces also sa��li��en��cies1. The quality or condition of being salient.2. A pronounced feature or part; a highlight.Noun 1. instudiedly pointed repetition--'And ride in triumph throughPersepolis' is an obvious instance. But it was left to Ethel Seatonto take the subject a decisive step forward in her classic essay'Marlowe's Map' (1924). (1) She advanced the study ofTamburlaine by moving from a vaguely sensed geography to a moreprecisely focused cartography cartography:see map. cartographyor mapmakingArt and science of representing a geographic area graphically, usually by means of a map or chart. Political, cultural, or other nongeographic features may be superimposed. . She demonstrated conclusively that onenotable passage in Part Two was not a mere fantasy of outlandish out��land��ish?adj.1. Conspicuously unconventional; bizarre. See Synonyms at strange.2. Strikingly unfamiliar.3. Located far from civilized areas.4. Archaic Of foreign origin; not native. namesbut an account of a journey (by Techelles) through Africa, which Marlowehad based on a close study of Ortelius's Theatrum orbis terrarum Theatrum Orbis Terrarum /tɛˈɑːtrʊm ˈɔrbɪs tɛˈrːɑːrʊm/("Theatre of the World") is considered to be the first true modern atlas. .This great world atlas was first published in Antwerp in 1570. Some ofMarlowe's details, which had been taken by editors to be errors orblunders on his part, could now be justified by reference to Ortelius,notably the placing of 'Zanzibar' on the west coast of Africarather than on the east. But the chief effect of Seaton's work wasto make Marlowe's procedure in the Tamburlaine plays seemincomparably more rational than before. It showed him to be aware ofsome of the most recent technological innovations by putting him intouch with the enormously influential map culture of his time. But italso gave more point to Marlowe's conception of his hero, who,before succumbing to death at the end of Part Two, actually calls for amap to be brought before him. In Tyrone Guthrie's great productionof both Tamburlaine plays at the Old Vic Old Vic,London repertory company and theater. The Old Vic theater opened in 1818 as the Coburg, and was renamed the Royal Victoria in 1833, soon familiarized to the Old Vic. in 1951 (which I was fortunateenough to see), a map was brought on as big as a large Persian carpet Persian carpetNouna hand-made carpet or rug with flowing or geometric designs in rich colours and was unrolled to fill the whole central area of the stage.Tamburlaine, now visibly dying, stepped on to the map, while hisfollowers followerssee dairy herd. respectfully stood around it and watched. And so, in recallinghis life's achievements--endless conquests and journeys--he makesgesturally visible both what he has done and what he would still long todo: 'And shall I die, and this unconquered?' (2 Tamburlaine,v. 3. 150). (2) The line, repeated, becomes a bitterly dejected de��ject��ed?adj.Being in low spirits; depressed. See Synonyms at depressed.de��jected��ly adv. refrainas he points to this or that place on the map that remains'unconquered'. 'Marlowe's Map', in EthelSeaton's phrase, takes form here as Tamburlaine's own map, astage property as concretely visible to the audience as the royal crownof Persia or Bajazeth's cage had been in Part One, orTamburlaine's own king-drawn chariot chariot,earliest and simplest type of carriage and the chief vehicle of many ancient peoples. The chariot was known among the Babylonians before the introduction of horses c.2000 B.C. and was first drawn by asses. The chariot and horse introduced into Egypt c.1700 B. earlier in Part Two. It is asif, at the end of his second Tamburlaine play, Marlowe acknowledgeswhere he found his original inspiration. He was a reader of maps; andmaps, along with poems and romances and histories, played a crucial partin feeding his dramatic imagination. A reading of Seaton's essay, however, might lead one tosuppose that, as a result of his poring over Ortelius's maps, allthat Marlowe had to do was simply to have the idea of tracing hischaracters' journeys by using the place names in front of him.Seaton seems to attribute to Marlowe the original idea of using a map ina literary text, and in this she has been followed by later Marlowescholars. According to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. this view, Marlowe the map reader directlyinspired Marlowe the dramatist. I want to make a different suggestion. Marlowe may have been thefirst dramatist to incorporate cartographical car��tog��ra��phy?n.The art or technique of making maps or charts.[French cartographie : carte, map (from Old French, from Latin charta, carta, paper made from papyrus passages in a play, but hewas not the first writer to do so in a poetic work. In this he wasanticipated by Ariosto in Orlando furioso, and it was here that Marlowefound the model for his map-based passages. It has, of course, long beenknown that Marlowe was acquainted with Orlando furioso. The source forthe minor episode of Olympia in the second part of Tamburlaine (iii. 4and iv. 2) is in Ariosto (Orlando furioso, xxix), which Marlowepresumably pre��sum��a��ble?adj.That can be presumed or taken for granted; reasonable as a supposition: presumable causes of the disaster. read in the Italian, since Harington's Englishtranslation was not published until 1591. Apart from this minor plotconnection, however, Marlowe's literary relations with Ariosto havenot been explored. But before I look further at each of the Tamburlaineplays and their treatment of terrestrial space, I need to say brieflywhat Ariosto achieved so that it will seem plausible that an Englishpoet such as Marlowe should have sought him out. Ariosto's huge poem was first published in 1516 (furthereditions, with revisions by Ariosto, appeared in 1521 and 1532). Ariostowas offering a continuation of Boiardo's Orlando innamorato Orlando InnamoratoBoiardo’s epic combining Carolingian chivalry and Arthurian motifs. [Ital. Lit.: Orlando Innamorato]See : Epic and, inso doing, was bringing into the sixteenth-century reader's worldall the actions and settings (Christian and Saracen) and the themes andconventions of medieval chivalric romance For the modern genre of romantic fiction, see .As a literary genre, romance or chivalric romance refers to a style of heroic prose and verse narrative current in Europe from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance. , but always in a distinctivelynew, modern, post-chivalric way. He did so, moreover, with immense andinimitable in��im��i��ta��ble?adj.Defying imitation; matchless.[Middle English, from Latin inimit urbanity. The poem was an instant success--'the mostpopular work of modern poetry in the sixteenth century', as DanielJavitch says in his book-length study of the work. (3) Javitch bringsout the potent nature of the poem's appeal and the wide range ofits distribution, at first throughout Italy and then through westernEurope. Ariosto's final 1532 version was republished sixteen timesby 1540, and was then reprinted every year by several publishers:'Altogether, from 1540 to 1580 there appeared at least 113 editionsof Ariosto's poem'. (4) In Italy it seems to have been read byeveryone who could read--by nobility, gentry, and commoners alike, bythe learned as well as by those with no learning at all. In England Ariosto was certainly known by the second half of thesixteenth century, at least by some of the literary minded. In one ofhis letters to Gabriel Harvey Gabriel Harvey (c. 1545 – 1630) was an English writer.The eldest son of a ropemaker from Saffron Walden, Essex, he matriculated at Christ's College, Cambridge, in 1566, and in 1570 was elected fellow of Pembroke Hall. , Spenser remarks that he hopes to'overgo Ariosto', while in his letter to Ralegh prefacing TheFaerie Queene Faerie Queeneallegorical epic poem by Edmund Spenser. [Br. Lit.: Faerie Queene]See : EpicFaerie Queene (Gloriana)gives a champion to people in trouble. [Br. Lit.: The Faerie Queene]See : Salvation , Spenser refers as familiarly to Ariosto and Orlando as toHomer and Achilles and Virgil and Aeneas. Ariosto must have seemed thegreatest of modern European poets. And Marlowe, as a Cambridge studentwith a more than usual interest in poetry, would perhaps have sought outAriosto--indeed, he could hardly have avoided him. Marlowe's particular affinity with Ariosto, however, is to befound in their common interest in cartography. Ariosto was apparentlythe first poet to make extensive use of maps in his poetry so as toevoke the experience of traversing vast areas of the earth'ssurface Noun 1. Earth's surface - the outermost level of the land or sea; "earthquakes originate far below the surface"; "three quarters of the Earth's surface is covered by water"surface . On a number of occasions he makes his reader accompany someoneon a long and hazardous journey, in the course of which place names arefaithfully recorded in the order in which those locations would havebeen encountered in real life. Ariosto was himself well placed todevelop his interests as a cosmographical poet. He was the court poet atFerrara, and was granted free and full use of the ducal du��cal?adj.Of or relating to a duke or duchy: a ducal estate.[Middle English, from Old French, from Late Latin duc library. C. P.Brand shows how up to date and modern Ariosto was able to make hissuperficially old-fashioned romance so that it took on a contemporaryrelevance. (5) The previous fifty years had seen a series of greatvoyages in which Portuguese, Spanish, and Italian mariners had crossedthe oceans to discover unknown regions of the world. Brand points outthat Ferrara was itself a centre of cosmographical studies, with awell-equipped library where Ariosto could sit comfortably while enjoyingarmchair travel. He also clearly enjoyed contriving arduously longjourneys for the characters of his poem. For instance, Ruggiero, equipped with a flying horse and a thirst for travel (x.72), flies from Europe to India 'per la via occidentale',probably a reflection of Columbus's journey. From India he returnedvia Central Asia, to Poland, Hungary, Germany 'e il resto di quellaboreale orrida terra' to England and the Thames. (6) Astolfo, 'an English lord', is an important character inthe poem, since it is he who befriends Orlando in his madness and fliesup to the Moon to recover Orlando's wits. Before he does so,however, he goes on a journey, which vividly illustrates Ariosto'scosmographical interests. 'I will tell you', he says,'what did to Astolfo chance': Who, mounted on his statelie winged steed Well tamed late by Logistillas wit, Tooke perfect vew of France with passing speed And saw how ev'rie towne of worth did sit; Which having well observ'd and markt with heed From Rhine to Pyren mount, he thought it fit In maner like, all over Spaine to ride And many countries of the world beside. To Aragon he passed through Navar, Each man that saw him wondring at the sight. Then Taracon he did discry not far Upon his left hand, Biskie on his right. Where Castill, Lisbon, and Galicia are And Cordove neare and Sivill see he might Which divers crownes now joined in one raigne Are governed by the mightie king of Spaine. There saw he Gades where erst by Hercles hand Two pillars, markes for Marriners, were plast; Then over Atlant sea to Egipt land And over Affrica forthwith he past And saw where Balearick Iles do stand; Then travelld to Eviza with like hast And to Arzilla-ward he thence departeth Quite ore that sea that it from Spagna parteth. Oran he saw, Ippon, Marocco, Fesse, Algier, Buzea, and those stately townes Whose Princes with great pompe and pride possesse Of divers Provinces the stately crownes. He saw Byserta and Tunigi no lesse, And flying over many dales and downes He saw Capisse and Alzerbee Ile And all the Cities to the flood of Nyle, Tripolie, Bernick, Tolomit, and all Between the sea and Atlas woodie sides; Then on the Cereneys he right doth fall And past Carena mounts and more besides. Then crossing ov'r the barren fields and pall Where sands with wind do ebb and flow like tides The tombe of Battus he doth leave behind And Ammons temple now worne out of mind. Then came he by an other Tremisen That follows eake of Mahomet the law; Unto an other Ethyopia then He went, the which before he never saw, That differs both in language and in men. From thence he toward Nubia then did draw, Dobada and Coallee just between Of which these Christend and those Turkish been. (7) Characteristic of Ariosto is the fusion of the fantastic with themundanely realistic: we enjoy the easy pleasures of sixteenth-centuryair travel--our vehicle is a winged horse--but our route is strictlyconstrained by the facts of geography. Alexandre Doroszlac has writtenat length on Ariosto's 'inspiration cartographique', andhas, in particular, analysed four examples of journeys or movements onland (for instance, the siege of Paris This article is about the 1870 siege. For the Viking siege in 885, see Siege of Paris (885-886). The Siege of Paris, lasting from September 19, 1870 – January 28, 1871, brought about French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War and led to the ), in all of which Ariosto can beshown to be minutely influenced by the maps he was using. (8) In thoseplaces where he seems--to modern readers--to be making a mistake of somekind, he can be shown to be being accurate, or in some way defensible de��fen��si��ble?adj.Capable of being defended, protected, or justified: defensible arguments.de��fen ,according to the maps he was using. (In a similar way, Ethel Seatonshowed that Marlowe too was not simply blundering blun��der?n.A usually serious mistake typically caused by ignorance or confusion.v. blun��dered, blun��der��ing, blun��dersv.intr.1. To move clumsily or blindly.2. when he placedZanzibar on the west coast of Africa.) As C. P. Brand remarks, 'The wanderings of these medievalknights and their enchanted en��chant?tr.v. en��chant��ed, en��chant��ing, en��chants1. To cast a spell over; bewitch.2. To attract and delight; entrance. See Synonyms at charm. beasts are charted with a precision notfound in any of Ariosto's predecessors', (9) for Ariosto ispre-eminently the poet of geographically grounded romance; maps fuelledhis inspiration, so that at many points of the poem the reader isgranted a sense not only of the location of specific named places inrelation to each other, but also a larger feeling for the actualvastness of the world. One of Ariosto's modern admirers, Jorge LuisBorges, includes a short piece in Labyrinths called 'Parable ofCervantes and the Quixote'. It opens with the words: 'Tired ofhis Spanish land, an old soldier of the king sought solace in the vastgeographies of Ariosto.'10We may note that Borges does not say'the vast spaces of Ariosto' but 'the vast geographies ofAriosto'; the vast spaces are viewed, or glimpsed, through thespectacles of geography and specifically of cartography. Maps or charts,some of which had been used by the fifteenth-century voyagers who sailedthe Atlantic and the Indian oceans, were crucial in helping to awakenthis new feeling of distance. Vastness is a quality that enters the European imagination in thesixteenth century, finding expression for the first time not only inliterary form but in painting. The sense of gazing through immensedistances begins to excite and thrill major artists. I will touchbriefly on the subject of painting later, but at this point I mustreturn to the two Parts of Tamburlaine. Marlowe's treatment ofspace is different in each Part, although, of course, there are strongelements of continuity and consistency. Part Two is much closer toAriosto. There is nothing in Part One that corresponds to the map-basedaccounts of journeys in Part Two: these conclude the reports given byUsumcasane, Techelles, and Theridamas (2 Tamburlaine, i. 3), as well as,shortly before his death, Tamburlaine's own recapitulation recapitulation,theory, stated as the biogenetic law by E. H. Haeckel, that the embryological development of the individual repeats the stages in the evolutionary development of the species. of hisentire career (v. 3). In all these speeches we have a map-baseddepiction of movements across the earth's surface that recalls theminutely plotted journeys of Orlando furioso. Admittedly, these speechesdo not occupy much of the action in Part Two. Indeed, one may conjecture CONJECTURE. Conjectures are ideas or notions founded on probabilities without any demonstration of their truth. Mascardus has defined conjecture: "rationable vestigium latentis veritatis, unde nascitur opinio sapientis;" or a slight degree of credence arising from evidence too weak or too that it was in a late stage of composition that Marlowe had the idea ofincorporating something like Ariosto's journeys in his play. WhenTamburlaine suddenly decides to ask his three subordinate chiefs to tellhim about their campaigns, it sounds almost like an afterthought af��ter��thought?n.An idea, response, or explanation that occurs to one after an event or decision.afterthoughtNoun1. onMarlowe's part: 'But now, my friends, let me examine ye--| Howhave ye spent your absent time from me?' (2 Tamburlaine, i. 3.172-73). And the accounts of the three journeys follow. The wholesection seems like an insertion that, conceivably, was invented afterMarlowe had written Tamburlaine's death scene, with its long mapspeech at its centre. But this is conjectural con��jec��tur��al?adj.1. Based on or involving conjecture. See Synonyms at supposed.2. Tending to conjecture.con��jec . What is more certain isAriosto's priority as a poet of cartographic car��tog��ra��phy?n.The art or technique of making maps or charts.[French cartographie : carte, map (from Old French, from Latin charta, carta, paper made from papyrus inspiration. In one respect, however, Marlowe differentiates himself fromAriosto, and the difference points to the originality of his conception.Ariosto's travellers glide through space at their ease, oftenflying through the air: winged horses are the favourite means oflocomotion locomotionAny of various animal movements that result in progression from one place to another. Locomotion is classified as either appendicular (accomplished by special appendages) or axial (achieved by changing the body shape). . Marlowe's travellers, on the other hand, have nothingbut their own bodies to propel them across such vast distances. Theywalk or, rather, 'march' everywhere. Marlowe uses this word'march' over and over again; it becomes a stylism of theTamburlaine plays, used in both Parts and always enforcing therecognition that journeys through space require exhausting physicaleffort.We are not in a magical romance world but the world of history,in which distances must be traversed step by step. So, in Part One,Tamburlaine addresses his three chief followers: Kings of Argier, Moroccus, and of Fesse, You that have marched with happy Tamburlaine As far as from the frozen plage of heaven Unto the wat'ry morning's ruddy bower, And thence by land unto the torrid zone, Deserve these titles I endow you with, (1 Tamburlaine, iv. 4. 123-28) In Part One some of these marching references receive relativelylittle stress: it is as if Marlowe only gradually realized the potencyof the term, so that in Part Two it is used with greater and perhaps darker force. Thus, afterZenocrate's death, Tamburlaine tells his sons how he will trainthem to become conquerors like himself: I'll have you learn to sleep upon the ground, March in your armour thorough watery fens, [...] I'll teach you how to make the water mount, That you may dry-foot march through lakes and pools, [...] View me, thy father, that hath conquered kings And with his host marched round about the earth (2 Tamburlaine, iii. 2. 55-56, 85-86, 110-11) And then, shortly before his death, when he has asked for a map tobe brought to him, he once more recalls their marches from country tocountry: Here I began to march towards Persia, Along Armenia and the Caspian Sea, (v. 3. 126-27) Egypt, Arabia, and Zanzibar follow: Then by the northern part of Africa I came at last to Graecia, and from thence To Asia, where I stay against my will Which is from Scythia, where I first began, Backward and forwards near five thousand leagues. (v. 3. 140-44) He goes on, with a slight change of tone, to stress the extent ofthe world that is still unpossessed: Look here, my boys, see what a world of ground Lies westward from the midst of Cancer's line Unto the rising of this earthly globe, (v. 3. 145-47) The 'world of ground' is no airy dream but a solidearth-based project that acknowledges the effortful movements ofTamburlaine's armies, soldiers walking, marching on the ground.Marlowe must have decided to omit any reference to the historicalTimur's well-attested lameness. His Tamburlaine is not lame but aman physically perfect and certainly well qualified to march 'roundabout the earth'. (11) But there is one notable exception to Tamburlaine's marchingrule. In Act ii of Part One, Cosroe has, with Tamburlaine's help,become king of Persia at the expense of his foolish brother Mycetes.Cosroe departs to 'ride in triumph through Persepolis' (ii. 5.49). And Tamburlaine, struck by those words just spoken--'And ridein triumph through Persepolis!' (ii. 5. 50)--suddenly conceives hisidea of taking the crown of Persia for himself. He sends Theridamasafter Cosroe with 'a thousand horse' (ii. 5. 99). The ensuing en��sue?intr.v. en��sued, en��su��ing, en��sues1. To follow as a consequence or result. See Synonyms at follow.2. To take place subsequently. battle comes and goes as an offstage abstraction, but the reference to(offstage) horses, as opposed to marching foot soldiers, suggests thelightning audacity au��dac��i��ty?n. pl. au��dac��i��ties1. Fearless daring; intrepidity.2. Bold or insolent heedlessness of restraints, as of those imposed by prudence, propriety, or convention.3. of this vital moment in Tamburlaine's ascent toregal power. And shortly after it, with Cosroe dying atTamburlaine's feet and his own coronation as king of Persia, comesthe visionary moment of his hymn to kingship: 'The sweet fruitionof an earthly crown' (ii. 7. 29). Accordingly, for once we do not'march', we ride or glide or even, as Theridamas says,'soar' upwards: And that made me to join with Tamburlaine, For he is gross and like the massy earth That moves not upwards, nor by princely deeds Doth mean to soar above the highest sort. (ii. 7. 30-33) Theridamas has caught the more than festive mood ofTamburlaine--the almost ecstatic lift of the spirit--created by thewinning moment. I now move to a difference aspect of Marlowe's treatment ofspace, and I shall focus mainly on Part One. But in order to explainMarlowe's procedure here, I need first to stress the importance ofa structural feature that for the most part has been neglected if notaltogether overlooked. Both the Tamburlaine plays fall into two phases,the division between them occurring between Acts ii and iii. Thisdivision should be made clear to all readers and playgoers. If it is notmade clear, the tendency is to collapse each play into indigestible in��di��gest��i��ble?adj.Difficult or impossible to digest: an indigestible meal.in five-act sequences or, worse still, to merge both plays into what theliterary historian J. J. Jusserand called 'a huge drama in twoparts and ten acts'. (12) (Critics still commonly refer toTamburlaine as if it were a single play.) But Marlowe articulates hisplays in shorter, more easily assimilable as��sim��i��la��ble?adj.That can be assimilated: assimilable nutrients; assimilable information.as��sim segments and sets thesesegments against each other in a meaningful pattern. The two phases of Part One might be called 'Cosroe' and'Bajazeth', since these are Tamburlaine's principalantagonists antagonists,n muscles that counterbalance agonists during specific movements.opioidNeurology A pain-attenuating peptide that occurs naturally in the brain, which induces analgesia by mimicking endogenous opioids at opioid ; but I shall argue later that this is not the best way toapproach the play. The first phase (Acts i and ii) disposes of Mycetesand his brother Cosroe and leaves Tamburlaine crowning himself king ofPersia. The second phase (Acts iii-v) introduces a largely new set ofcharacters, led by Bajazeth the Turkish emperor. He is quickly takenprisoner and caged, while Tamburlaine then has to face Zenocrate'sdefenders--her father the Soldan sol��dan? also sou��dann.A sultan in Egypt.[Middle English, from Old French, from Arabic sul of Egypt and her betrothed the king ofArabia. The play ends with Tamburlaine's victory and his coronationof Zenocrate. Marlowe is careful to end each of his two phases with asimilar event or double-event--victory followed by a coronation--whichgives the whole play an effect of structural rhyming. The second part ofTamburlaine does something very similar. The first phase, at the end ofAct II, brings the death of Zenocrate, while the second phase bringsTamburlaine's own death. (In Part One, the man's coronation istaken first, the woman's second; in Part Two, the woman'sdeath is taken first, the man's second--a characteristicElizabethan contrivance of structural chiasmus chi��as��mus?n. pl. chi��as��miA rhetorical inversion of the second of two parallel structures, as in "Each throat/Was parched, and glazed each eye"Samuel Taylor Coleridge. .) In each case, thecentral event (victory and coronation; death) is embedded in matchingcircumstances: in Part One, Tamburlaine's triumph confronts theabject death of Cosroe, just as in the final moments of the play theconqueror Tamburlaine accepts as his due the sight of his dead enemies('And such are objects fit for Tamburlaine', 1 Tamburlaine, v.1. 476) without prevarication PREVARICATION. Praevaricatio, civil law. The acting with unfaithfulness and want of probity. The term is applied principally to the act of concealing a crime. Dig. 47, 15, 6. and with no sense of regret. In Part Two,in both death scenes Tamburlaine is surrounded and supported by his sonsand followers but is at the same time compelled to acknowledgenecessity: 'And all this raging cannot make her live' (2Tamburlaine, II. 4. 120); 'For Tamburlaine, the scourge of God,must die' (v. 3. 248). Viewed in this way, each play has somethingof the firm clarity of form of a Petrarchan sonnet Petrarchan sonnetn.A sonnet containing an octave with the rhyme pattern abbaabba and a sestet of various rhyme patterns such as cdecde or cdcdcd. Also called Italian sonnet. , with its octavefollowed by its sestet. Here, in Marlowe's resourcefully arrangeddramatic sequences, the first phase (two acts) is followed by a larger,culminating second phase (three acts). In this second phase of Part One, the dramatic contrasts andconflicts become more testingly complex: Tamburlaine's steady andimperturbable progress towards the final stasis stasis/sta��sis/ (sta��sis)1. a stoppage or diminution of flow, as of blood or other body fluid.2. a state of equilibrium among opposing forces. (reconciliation with theSoldan, marriage to Zenocrate, temporary peace) is given definition bybeing set against the misery and final despair of Bajazeth and Zabinaand the elimination of Arabia. The scenes unfold with clarity andorderliness, sometimes with a suggestion of ceremony and ritual (as withthe three colour schemes in white, red, and black) and with an abundanceof action and event (as with the banquet of crowns or the appeal formercy by the virgins of Damascus). Yet, as well as forwarding hislucidly complex main action, Marlowe manages to leave us at the end ofPart One with the powerful sense that we have been on a journey with anexceptional individual, a military genius, someone comparable toAlexander the Great--hence Marlowe's title for him,'Tamburlaine the Great'. This feeling that we have been on ajourney through several countries, a tract of unspecified extent, isconveyed entirely obliquely, and it constitutes one of the imaginativeachievements of the play. No earlier play in English does anything likeit. We can be sure that Shakespeare took full note of it, since hisHenry V copies, or adapts, Marlowe's play for its own purposes. Ittoo takes its audience on a journey involving military engagements andconcluding in a mood of festive triumph. (There is even what seems areminiscence rem��i��nis��cence?n.1. The act or process of recollecting past experiences or events.2. An experience or event recollected: "Her mind seemed wholly taken up with reminiscences of past gaiety"of Marlowe's marching theme in Henry's words toMountjoy just before the battle: 'Our gayness and our gilt are allbesmirched | With rainy marching in Marching In is a science fiction short story by Isaac Asimov. The story was written at the request of the US publication 'High Fidelity', with the stipulation that it be 2,500 words long, set twenty-five years in the future and deal with an aspect of sound recording. the painful field', iv. 4.110-12.) By fashioning his play in the form of a military expedition ledby a heroic military genius, Shakespeare is following the template ofPart One of Tamburlaine. Marlowe's division of the play into two phases has a directbearing on its geographical and spatial concerns. In Acts I and II, thefirst phase, we are somewhere in Persia, and it ends with Tamburlaineputting the Persian crown on his own head. Act III, which opens thesecond phase, forms a compact unit: it shows Tamburlaine's armyclashing with Bajazeth's at what was historically the battle ofAnkara The Battle of Ankara or Battle of Angora, fought on July 20, 1402, took place at the field of ?ubuk (near Ankara) between the forces of the Ottoman sultan Bayezid I and the Turko-Mongol forces of Timur, ruler of the Timurid Empire. (or Angora) in Bithynia (modern Turkey). In Acts iv and v, theaction is more difficult to locate: we alternate between Tamburlaine,who seems to be in transit south of Asia Minor Asia Minor,great peninsula, c.250,000 sq mi (647,500 sq km), extreme W Asia, generally coterminous with Asian Turkey, also called Anatolia. It is washed by the Black Sea in the north, the Mediterranean Sea in the south, and the Aegean Sea in the west. (or Turkey), and hisadversaries the Soldan of Egypt and the king of Arabia, who are joiningforces to confront Tamburlaine at Damascus. Everything converges atDamascus: the city is besieged be��siege?tr.v. be��sieged, be��sieg��ing, be��sieg��es1. To surround with hostile forces.2. To crowd around; hem in.3. and falls, the citizens are massacred,and Egypt and Arabia are defeated in battle. In the final moments of theplay, however, Tamburlaine seems to locate the action with unusualprecision when he says: 'here in Afric where it seldom rains'(1 Tamburlaine, v. 1. 458). Damascus, however, is not in Africa but inAsia. Certainly, in Ortelius's map of Asia, 'Damasco' iswhere we should expect it to be--in 'Soria' (modern Syria); inOrtelins's map of Africa, 'Damasco' is even more clearlyin Soria, which is 'Asiae Pars' (part of Asia). (Both maps areconveniently reproduced in the 1998 edition of Tamburlaine by DavidFuller; (13) but otherwise Marlowe's editors could do more to helpreaders over these geographical references.) Marlowe's'African' Damascus needs to be explained. We can safely say that most of the action of the first Part ofTamburlaine takes place in Persia, Turkey, and at or near Damascus. TheSoldan's first scene (iv. 1) is clearly placed in Egypt('Awake, ye men of Memphis', l. 1), but otherwise he too joinsthe others at Damascus. Geographically, it all makes perfectly goodsense: we can imagine Tamburlaine's army marching from Persia westto Turkey and then south to Syria, where the play concludes. Whatremains puzzling is locating Damascus in Africa. Africa is mentioned anumber of times in Part One, and for modern readers it always causesconfusion. When Tamburlaine first appears, for instance (i. 2), he hascaptured Zenocrate, but she claims that she has been travelling underthe protection of 'the mighty Turk'--'To safe conduct usthorough Africa' (i. 2. 14, 16). However, she is not travelling inAfrica but in a region that seems to be close to Persia. Marlowe'smost recent editors (Cunningham and Fuller) quote the earlier edition ofMarlowe by E. D. Pendry and J. C. Maxwell (1976), which offers aconjectural explanation for 'Africa': '?i.e. (full extentof) Turkish empire'. (14) This tentative suggestion appears to fitall Marlowe's references, but there seems to be no furtherinformation as to why he used the term in this unexpected way.Marlowe's 'Africa' means all the territories governed byBajazeth the Turkish emperor. This includes Turkey and the countriessouth of Turkey in the eastern Mediterranean (all of which would seem tobe in Asia), as well as those along the north African North AfricaA region of northern Africa generally considered to include the modern-day countries of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya.North African adj. & n.Adj. 1. coast from Egyptto Morocco and which are obviously African. The question remains as towhat Marlowe thought he was doing with these geographical references ina play that is conspicuously well shaped and designed. We need to look again at the division of the play into two phases.In the first phase we observe Tamburlaine's ascent from obscurebrigand to king of Persia. Critics usually focus on the persons involved(Mycetes, Cosroe, Theridamas, etc.), but for the present purpose it ispreferable to look at the place names. The opening scene gives us ourguidelines. Persia is at the centre of an extensive empire that is oftencalled 'Asia'. This empire is also sometimes referred to as'the East'. So Cosroe first discloses that there is a plotafoot 'To crown me emperor of Asia', and he is then dulycrowned in terms that specify the extent and limits of his great domain: We here do crown thee monarch of the East, Emperor of Asia and of Persia, Great lord of Media and Armenia, Duke of Assyria and Albania, Mesopotamia and of Parthia, East India and the late-discovered isles, Chief lord of all the wide vast Euxine Sea And of the ever-raging Caspian Lake. Long live Cosroe, mighty emperor! (1 Tamburlaine, i. 1. 161-69) This list of states and places serves to give substance toTamburlaine's achievement by the end of Act II, when he takespossession of Cosroe's crown and puts it on his head. Tamburlaine,not Cosroe, is now emperor of the East, as his followers shout:'Long live Tamburlaine, and reign in Asia!' (II. 7. 64). If the first phase of the play shows Tamburlaine becoming emperorof Asia, the second will show him becoming emperor of Africa and monarchof the West, for this symmetry of empire of the East and empire of theWest is one that Tamburlaine insists on repeatedly. So, after he hasdefeated and captured Bajazeth in battle, Tamburlaine urges Zenocrate totake the Turkish 'imperial crown' (III. 3. 113), whichBajazeth has left in the keeping of his wife, and bring it to him: Nay, take the Turkish crown from her, Zenocrate, And crown me emperor of Africa. (III. 3. 220-21) And he goes on to state his double emperorship--a claim hereiterates later: Those walled garrisons will I subdue, And write myself great lord of Africa: So from the east unto the furthest west Shall Tamburlaine extend his puissant arm. (III. 3. 244-47) In the final speech of the play he sums up yet again how he seeshis achievement--the subjugation SubjugationCushan-rishathaim Aramking to whom God sold Israelites. [O.T.: Judges 3:8]Gibeonitesconsigned to servitude in retribution for trickery. [O.T.: Joshua 9:22–27]Ham Noahcurses him and progeny to servitude. [O. of both Eastern and Western empires,Asia and Africa: To gratify thee, sweet Zenocrate, Egyptians, Moors, and men of Asia, From Barbary unto the Western Indie, Shall pay a yearly tribute to thy sire; And from the bounds of Afric to the banks Of Ganges shall his mighty arm extend. (v. 1. 517-22) His stress on the enormous extent of his double-empire--fromMorocco in the African west to the Ganges in the Asian east--reminds usthat we should not think too much in terms of his defeat of individuals,despite his prolonged tormenting of Bajazeth: what he finally exultsover is the territorial vastness of his rule. This is what constitutesfor him the achievement of Tamburlaine the Great. As for the pairing of Asia and Africa, we may ask what might haveprompted Marlowe to arrange his two-phase play in this way for anEnglish--that is, European--audience. John Gillies For the Canadian politician, see John Gillies (Canadian politician).John Gillies (1747-1836), Scottish historian and classical scholar, was born at Brechin, in Forfarshire, on 18 January 1747. has drawn attentionto the frontispiece of Ortelius's Theatrum orbis terrarum. It shows'Europe enthroned upon an upper stage forming a canopy beneathwhich Asia and Africa stand on railings flanking the main stage'.And he refers to 'the classical sisterhood sisterhood:see monasticism. of "Europe","Asia", and "Africa"'. (15) The grouping ofEurope, Asia, and Africa was a traditional way of describing the knownworld. But Marlowe did not find in the sources for his play referencesto Tamburlaine's Asian and African empires There have been a number of African Empires of varying size and influence throughout recorded history. What separates African empires from other African states is the former's dominion over populations that were distinct from that of the central power. ; these areMarlowe's own contribution. One of his main sources, for example,Whetstone's The English Myrror, has the following: Tamberlaine thus possessed of Asia minor, which was before in thepossession of the Turke, he speeded unto Aegypt, and by the way raisedall Siria, Phenice, and the Palestine, he took manye famous Cities andamong others Smirna, Antioch, Tripoli Tripoli, city, LebanonTripoli(trĭp`əlē)or Tarabulus(täräb`l , Sebastian and Damas; in Aegypt heencountered with the Souldan, and the king of Arabia, and overthrewthem. (16) Marlowe seems to have decided to call the Turkish dominions'Africa' so as to set up his symmetrical Asia-Africa scheme.He was using his licence as a poet to adapt or adjust the facts ofgeography and history. His Tamburlaine plays are certainly history playsup to a point; but they also incorporate a good deal offiction--invented incident and unhistorical un��his��tor��i��cal?adj.Taking little or no account of history. persons. Zenocrate, forexample, is wholly invented, although Marlowe deftly deft?adj. deft��er, deft��estQuick and skillful; adroit. See Synonyms at dexterous.[Middle English, gentle, humble, variant of dafte, foolish; see daft. makes her thedaughter to the 'Souldan' of Egypt, mentioned by Whetstone whetstone,natural or manufactured stone used as an abrasive solid to sharpen tools. It is used dry, with water, or with oil. Such a stone of the finer grade used with oil is usually called an oilstone. ,and the betrothed of 'the king of Arabia', also mentioned byWhetstone. There is one further way in which ideas of space can be introducedinto dramatizations of Tamburlaine's military career. Marlowe isalways making an effort to encompass immensity im��men��si��ty?n. pl. im��men��si��ties1. The quality or state of being immense.2. Something immense: "the empty immensity of earth, sky, and water" , compelling us toimagine--to see--huge armies confronting each other on spaciousterrains. To this end his use of numbers, or numbers rhetoric, isessential, and is highly characteristic of one side of sixteenth-centurysensibility. The following words of Usumcasane are a brief instance: Let him bring millions infinite of men, Unpeopling Western Africa and Greece, (1 Tamburlaine, III. 3. 33-34) The numbers are colossal, the hyperbole hyperbole(hīpûr`bəlē), a figure of speech in which exceptional exaggeration is deliberately used for emphasis rather than deception. unflinching. Elsewhere, thehuge numbers manning the opposing armies are themselves used to evokethe physical spaces they traverse and occupy. In Part Two especially,the numbers of people in movement and the size of armies on the marchenforce over and over again the gigantesque gi��gan��tesque?adj.Of enormous size or magnitude; huge.[French, from Italian gigantesco, from gigante, giant, from Latin gig nature of thesesupranational SupranationalAn international organization, or union, whereby member states transcend national boundariesor interests to share in the decision-making and vote on issues pertaining to the wider grouping. confrontations: He brings a world of people to the field. From Scythia to the oriental plage Of India, where raging Lantchidol Beats on the regions with his boisterous blows, That never seaman yet discovered: All Asia is in arms with Tamburlaine. Even from the midst of fiery Cancer's tropic To Amazonia under Capricorn, And thence as far as Archipelago: All Afric is in arms with Tamburlaine. (2 Tamburlaine, i. 1. 67-76) And later, when Callapine, son of Bajazeth, assembles his army, heis empowered by hearing specified from his generals the sheer numbersthey bring in his support: one brings 'three score thousandfighting men', another 'full fifty thousand more', yetanother 'Ten thousand horse and thirty thousand foot',swelling 'the army royal' to 'Six hundred thousandvaliant VALIANTValsartan in Acute Myocardial Infarction Trial Cardiology A series of multinational M&M trials to determine the effects of valsartan–Diovan® fighting men' (III. 5. 33, 42, 48, 50, 51). Callapinereplies: Then welcome, Tamburlaine, unto thy death. Come, puissant viceroys, let us to the field The Persians' sepulcher--and sacrifice Mountains of breathless men to Mahomet, (III. 5. 52-55) Of course, even this huge host is not enough to bury Tamburlaine:what it does instead is to enhance our sense of his even greaterstature. I remarked earlier that vastness is a quality that enters theEuropean imagination in the sixteenth century. It is, I think, importantto recognize that Marlowe shares this European sensibility, with itspeculiar appetite for huge numbers and immense vistas. Early in thesixteenth century a new kind of landscape painting emerges in the Germanstates and in the Netherlands. A high viewpoint is often adopted, whichallows the artist to take in the most distant features of the landscape,where chains of ice-capped mountains merge indistinctly in��dis��tinct?adj.1. Not clearly or sharply delineated: an indistinct pattern; indistinct shapes in the gloom.2. Faint; dim: indistinct stars.3. with the snowyclouds of the heavens. In the foreground may stretch an immense plain,which the artist may cover with thousands of fighting soldiers. Thegreatest painter of the Danube School Danube schoolTradition of German landscape painting and etching that developed in the Danube River valley between Regensburg and Vienna in the early 16th century. The most important artists associated with the movement were Albrecht Altdorfer and Lucas Cranach the Elder; was Albrecht Altdorfer Albrecht Altdorfer (c. 1480 near Regensburg – February 12, 1538 in Regensburg) was a German painter and printmaker, the leader of the Danube School in southern Germany, and a near-contemporary of Albrecht D��rer. He is best known as a significant pioneer of landscape in art. (c.1480-1538). In his book The Art of the Renaissance in Northern Europe,Otto Benesch Otto Benesch (June 29, 1896 - November 16, 1964) was an Austrian art historian. He is considered as a member of the Vienna School of Art History.He was taught by Max Dvoř��k. In 1942 he was awarded the Guggenheim Fellowship. sets Altdorfer in his historical context and relates hislandscapes to the theories of his contemporary Paracelsus:'Paracelsus called the art of interpretation of nature"chiromancy"' (that is, palmistry palmistryReading of an individual's character and divination of the future by interpreting lines on the palm of the hand. Palmistry may have originated in ancient India, and it was probably from their original Indian home that the traditional fortune-telling of the Gypsies : the art of reading aperson's character from the markings on his or her palms). Beneschgoes on: He applied it not only to the hands of men but also to plants,trees, woods, and finally even to scenery, through the means ofmountains, roads, and rivers. The grandest chiromancy of scenery everachieved by an artist is Albrecht Altdorfer's Battle of Alexanderthe Great against the Persian King Darius at Issus (Munich, AltePinakothek Alte Pinakothek(German; “Old Museum of Painting”)Art museum, one of several collections within the Bavarian State Picture Galleries in Munich, Germany, and one of the great museums of the world. ) which he painted in 1529 for Duke Wilhelm IV of Bavaria. Itunfolds a cosmic world panorama like the maps of the new cosmography.(17) This extraordinary picture presents us with an aerial view of abattle involving tens of thousands of soldiers in a vast plain beneath aturbulent sky in one corner of which a blood-red sun is setting. Thespatial extent is astonishing a��ston��ish?tr.v. as��ton��ished, as��ton��ish��ing, as��ton��ish��esTo fill with sudden wonder or amazement. See Synonyms at surprise. , but also astonishing is the depiction ofso many minute human forms meticulously rendered. A more recent arthistorian, James Snyder, adds his own reading of the scene: 'wehave here a mind-boggling expansion of the Danube landscapes' ofAldtdorfer's earlier works: Everything is here: the foot soldiers, the cavalry, the bannerets,the dead, the debris, as well as the encampments and the preparations.But this staffage is only the beginning of Altdorfer's sublime wargames. The setting is truly cosmic, a vast panorama in roiling fluxwherein the details are lost and mean little. It is the flowing cosmosat war in which man (those engaged in the chaotic battle on the plain ofthe Illus), nature (the sprawling mountains, valleys, and waters thatoverwhelm the closer plateau stage for the countless tiny figures), andGod (the fundamental elements in the deep, nearly infinite universe withits spiraling sun and swift rotation of dark blue clouds) provoke anawesome response that we cannot quite articulate. (18) Altdorfer is only one, though one of the greatest, of the northernEuropean painters who gave overwhelming expression to their sense ofwhat Benesch calls the 'vast panorama of the globe'. (19)Others would include Joachim Patinir Joachim Patinir, also called de Patinier and de Patiner (c. 1480 – October 5, 1524), was a Flemish Northern Renaissance history and landscape painter. He was probably the uncle of Herri met de Bles, with whom he helped establish a distinct style of northern and Pieter Bruegel the Elder Pieter Bruegel the Elder or Brueghel (c. 1525 – September 9, 1569) was a Netherlandish Renaissance painter and printmaker known for his landscapes and peasant scenes (Genre Painting). . Byreferring to their great achievements in painting, I am not suggestingthat Marlowe actually saw any of Altdorfer's (or Patinir's orBruegel's) work, although the subject of Altdorfer'sastounding a��stound?tr.v. a��stound��ed, a��stound��ing, a��stoundsTo astonish and bewilder. See Synonyms at surprise.[From Middle English astoned, past participle of astonen, picture cannot but strike anyone with an interest in Marlowe.We know nothing of what Marlowe might have seen of contemporary Europeanart. And we know very little about the circulation of prints andengravings in Marlowe's England. But we should not assume, I think,that his interest in gigantic battle scenes can be explained simply withreference to classical literary sources such as Lucan's Pharsalia.He could in any case have seen the illustrations included in editions ofAriosto, with their very suggestive scenes of battle merging intodistant land formations, including recognizable map outlines of parts ofEurope. This is the period in which were produced what art historianscall 'Weltbilder' (worldpictures), works that occupy anintermediate place between paintings and maps. (A set of Ariostoillustrations can be seen in McNulty's edition of Harington'stranslation.) Further research in this direction might be rewarding. In two laterplays, The Jew of Malta and Doctor Faustus Doctor Faustus could refer to: The character of Faust Christopher Marlowe's The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus Thomas Mann's Doktor Faustus Ferruccio Busoni's opera Doktor Faust , Barabas's Malta('our Mediterranean sea', as he says) and Faustus'sGermany ('our land', in his words) are distinctivelyMarlovian. Marlowe's cosmographical interests are producing newdramatic forms and characters, but are still essential to him. Barabasand Faustus are both map readers--Faustus is even said at one point tohave 'gone to prove cosmography'. But Tamburlaine had beenthere before them, imagining and coveting for his own rule 'a worldof ground' by scrutinizing a map. (1) Ethel Seaton, 'Marlowe's Map', Essays andStudies, 10 (1924), pp. 13-35. (2) All quotations from the Tamburlaine plays are from ChristopherMarlowe Noun 1. Christopher Marlowe - English poet and playwright who introduced blank verse as a form of dramatic expression; was stabbed to death in a tavern brawl (1564-1593)Marlowe , Tamburlaine the Great, ed. by J. S. Cunningham (Manchester:Manchester University Press, 1981). (3) Daniel Javitch, Proclaiming a Classic: The Canonization canonization(kăn'ənĭzā`shən), in the Roman Catholic Church, process by which a person is classified as a saint. It is now performed at Rome alone, although in the Middle Ages and earlier bishops elsewhere used to canonize. of'Orlando Furioso' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Princeton University,at Princeton, N.J.; coeducational; chartered 1746, opened 1747, rechartered 1748, called the College of New Jersey until 1896.Schools and Research Facilities Press,1991). (4) Javitch, Proclaiming a Classic, p. 10. (5) C. P. Brand, Ludovico Ariosto “Ariosto” redirects here. For other uses, see Ariosto (disambiguation).Ludovico Ariosto (September 8, 1474 – July 6, 1533) was an Italian poet, most noted as the author of the epic poem Orlando furioso (1516), "Orlando Enraged. (Edinburgh: Edinburgh UniversityPress Edinburgh University Press is a university publisher that is part of the University of Edinburgh in Edinburgh, Scotland. External linksEdinburgh University Press , 1974). (6) Brand, Ariosto, p. 115. (7) Ludovico Ariosto's 'Orlando Furioso' Translatedinto English Heroical Verse by Sir John Harington Sir John Harington (August 4, 1561 – November 20, 1612) was a courtier and author. He became a prominent member of Queen Elizabeth I's court, and was known as her 'saucy Godson'. , ed. by Robert McNulty(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), canto xxxiii, stanzas 87-92. (8) Alexandre Doroszlac, 'Les Sources cartographiques et leRoland Furieux: Quelques hypothEses autour 1'"espacereel" chez chez?prep.At the home of; at or by.[French, from Old French, from Latin casa, cottage, hut.]chezprepat the home of [French] l'Arioste', in Espaces reels et espacesimaginaires dans le 'Roland Furieux', ed. by Doroszlac andothers (Paris: Universite de la Sorbonne nouvelle, 1991), pp. 11-46. (9) Brand, Ariosto, p. 115. (10) Jorge Luis Borges, Labyrinths: Selected Stories and OtherWritings, ed. by Donald A. Yates and James E. Irby (New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of : NewDirections, 1964), p. 242. (11) Marlowe's marching stress was perhaps reflected in EdwardAlleyn's performance as Tamburlaine. Alleyn seems to have adopted amemorably emphatic gait. In his 1598 satire on theatre audiences(Virgidemiarum I.iii), Joseph Hall does not name Alleyn, but he refersto 'Turksih Tamberlain' and describes an actor performing'With high-set steps, and princely prince��ly?adj. prince��li��er, prince��li��est1. Of or relating to a prince; royal.2. Befitting a prince, as:a. Noble: a princely bearing.b. carriage', while a poor andignorant groundling ground��ling?n.1. a. A plant or an animal that lives on or close to the ground.b. A bottom fish.2. A person with uncultivated tastes.3. gazes up at'The stalking Criminal activity consisting of the repeated following and harassing of another person.Stalking is a distinctive form of criminal activity composed of a series of actions that taken individually might constitute legal behavior. steps og his greatpersonage/Graced with hof-cap termes and thundring threats' (TheCollected Poemsof Joseph Hall, ed. by A. Davenport, Liverpool: LiverpoolUniversity Press, 1949). (12) J. J. Jusserand, A Literary History of the English People Noun 1. English people - the people of EnglandEnglishnation, country, land - the people who live in a nation or country; "a statement that sums up the nation's mood"; "the news was announced to the nation"; "the whole country worshipped him" (1909), Vol. 3, p. 135. (13) Christopher Marlowe, Tamburlaine the Great, Parts 1 and 2, inThe Complete Works, vol. 5, ed. by David Fuller and Edward J. Esche(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998). (14) Christopher Marlowe, Complete Plays and Poems, ed. by E. D.Pendry, rev. Everyman edn (London: Dent, 1976), p. 516 (Glossary). (15) John Gillies, Shakespeare and the Geography of Difference(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP) is a publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534, and one of the two privileged presses (the other being Oxford University Press). , 1994), p. 74. (16) George Whetstone George Whetstone (1544?-1587?) was an English dramatist and author.He was the third son of Robert Whetstone (d. 1557), a member of a wealthy family that owned the manor of Walcot at Barnack, near Stamford, Lincolnshire. , The English Myrror (1586), i, ch. 12;extract quoted from Marlowe, Tamburlaine the Great, ed. by Cunningham,pp. 322-23. (17) Otto Benesch, The Art of the Renaissance in Northern Europe,rev. edn (London: Phaidon, 1965), p. 58. (18) James Snyder, Northern Renaissance The Northern Renaissance is the term used to describe the Renaissance in northern Europe, or more broadly in Europe outside Italy. Before 1450 the Italian Renaissance had almost no influence outside Italy. Art: Painting, Sculpture,the Graphic Arts graphic arts:see aquatint; drawing; drypoint; engraving; etching; illustration; linoleum block printing; lithography; mezzotint; niello; pastel; poster; silk-screen printing; silhouette; silverpoint; sketch; stencil; woodcut and wood engraving. from 1350 to 1575 (New York: Abrams, 1985), p. 363. Seealso Christopher S. Wood, Albrecht Altdorfer and the Origins ofLandscape (London: Reaktion Books, 1993). (19) Benesch, Art of the Renaissance, p. 59.