The economic status of women in Ohio: wide disparities by race and ethnicity.

The economic status of women in Ohio: wide disparities by race and ethnicity. This paper examines how women in Ohio fare on eight indicators ofwomen's economic status, in comparison with women in other states,including in Ohio's region, and with women nationally. Ithighlights where Ohio women have seen economic progress and where theirconditions have stagnated and examines differences among Ohio'swomen by race and ethnicity ethnicityVox populi Racial status–ie, African American, Asian, Caucasian, Hispanic . It also details a number of recommendationsfor policy and practice to improve women's lives and to promote amore productive state economy. ********** Women have made tremendous gains toward economic equality equalityGenerally, an ideal of uniformity in treatment or status by those in a position to affect either. Acknowledgment of the right to equality often must be coerced from the advantaged by the disadvantaged. Equality of opportunity was the founding creed of U.S. duringthe last several decades. Nonetheless, women throughout the UnitedStates United States,officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. still earn less, are less likely to own a business, and are morelikely to live in poverty than men. Even in areas where there have beensignificant advances in women's status, there is still ample roomfor improvement. For example, at the rate of progress achieved between1995 and 2005, women would not achieve wage parity parityor space parity,in physics, quantity that refers to the relationship between an object or process and the image that it can produce in a mirror. with men for nearly50 years. (1) Women of color not of the white race; - commonly meaning, esp. in the United States, of negro blood, pure or mixed.See also: Color are particularly disadvantaged This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims.Please help Wikipedia by adding references. See the for details.This article has been tagged since September 2007. in the United States.In every state, racial and ethnic inequalities This page lists Wikipedia articles about named mathematical inequalities. Pure mathematicsAbel's inequality Barrow's inequality Berger's inequality for Einstein manifolds Bernoulli's inequality Bernstein's inequality (mathematical analysis) abound. In most states,these inequalities follow a general trend: white and Asian American A��sian A��mer��i��canalso A��sian-A��mer��i��can ?n.A U.S. citizen or resident of Asian descent. See Usage Note at Amerasian.A women enjoy better wages and less poverty than African American African AmericanMulticulture A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa.See Race. ,Hispanic HispanicMulticulture A person of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central or South American, or other Spanish culture or origin, regardless of race Social medicine Any of 17 major Latino subcultures, concentrated in California, Texas, Chicago, Miam, NY, and elsewhere , and Native American women This is a list of famous Native Americans. This is a list of Native American women. Please note that it should contain only Native women of the United States and her territories, not First Nations women or Native women of other countries in North, Central, and South America. . The economic status of all women is intimately in��ti��mate?1?adj.1. Marked by close acquaintance, association, or familiarity.2. Relating to or indicative of one's deepest nature: intimate prayers.3. linked towomen's well-being in other areas of life and impacts women overthe lifespan lifespanLongevity Epidemiology The genetically endowed limit to life for a person, if free of exogenous risk factors. See Average lifespan, Life expectancy. . For example, a woman's earnings, access to healthinsurance, and likelihood of poverty may affect her ability to provide adecent quality of life for her family, to maintain her and herfamily's health, or to move out of a violent or abusive Tending to deceive; practicing abuse; prone to ill-treat by coarse, insulting words or harmful acts. Using ill treatment; injurious, improper, hurtful, offensive, reproachful. relationship. A woman's access to a good paying job that isfamily-friendly and offers benefits will also affect her economicstanding in old age, by affecting her Social Security benefits and herability to save and invest for retirement. In addition, the economic status of women plays a critical part inthe success and growth of every state and the entire country. When womencan contribute as full and equal participants in society, they enablecities, states, and the nation as a whole to achieve their full socialand economic potential. This briefing paper on the Economic Status of Women in Ohioassesses women's economic status in the state, drawing comparisonswith women in other states and with women nationally. The paperhighlights what is most promising and disappointing about women'seconomic progress in Ohio and outlines recommendations for policy andpractice that will help the state address the economic barriers womencontinue to face. Overview While Ohio's women, like all women in the United States, havewitnessed real improvements in their economic and social status,barriers to their economic equality remain embedded Inserted into. See embedded system. in the state'ssocial and economic fabric. Nationally, Ohio ranks 25th in the nationfor women's employment and earnings and 29th for women'ssocial and economic autonomy autonomy(ôtŏn`əmē)[Gr.,=self-rule], in a political sense, limited self-government, short of independence, of a political state or, more frequently, of a subdivision. (see Table 1; for more information aboutthe methodology for the composite composite,alternate common name for Asteraceae or Compositae, the aster family. composite - aggregate indices see Appendix appendix,small, worm-shaped blind tube, about 3 in. (7.6 cm) long and 1-4 in. to 1 in. (.64–2.54 cm) thick, projecting from the cecum (part of the large intestine) on the right side of the lower abdominal cavity. I). Theserankings place Ohio in the middle third of all states for bothemployment and earnings and social and economic autonomy (Maps 1 and 2). [ILLUSTRATIONS OMITTED] Ohio joins Illinois Illinois, river, United StatesIllinois,river, 273 mi (439 km) long, formed by the confluence of the Des Plaines and Kankakee rivers, NE Ill., and flowing SW to the Mississippi at Grafton, Ill. It is an important commercial and recreational waterway. , Indiana Indiana, state, United StatesIndiana,midwestern state in the N central United States. It is bordered by Lake Michigan and the state of Michigan (N), Ohio (E), Kentucky, across the Ohio R. (S), and Illinois (W). , Michigan Michigan(mĭsh`ĭgən), upper midwestern state of the United States. It consists of two peninsulas thrusting into the Great Lakes and has borders with Ohio and Indiana (S), Wisconsin (W), and the Canadian province of Ontario (N,E). , and Wisconsin Wisconsin, state, United StatesWisconsin(wĭskŏn`sən, –sĭn), upper midwestern state of the United States. It is bounded by Lake Superior and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, from which it is divided by the Menominee as part ofthe East North Central region. Ohio is second in the region foremployment and earnings and fourth for social and economic autonomy. Ohio women's economic status over time shows littleimprovement or stagnation StagnationA period of little or no growth in the economy. Economic growth of less than 2-3% is considered stagnation. Sometimes used to describe low trading volume or inactive trading in securities.Notes:A good example of stagnation was the U.S. economy in the 1970s. on many indicators, and decline on others. Forexample, since 1989, the state has seen only modest increases inwomen's earnings and slow improvement in the wage ratio betweenwomen and men; women's labor force participation grew between 1994and 1998, but has stagnated ever since; since 1989 the state has trailedbehind the national average for the percent of women with a four-yearcollege degree; and the proportion of women with health insurance hasconsistently decreased between 1992 and 2005. (Data not shown; data forOhio from past Status of Women in the States reports can be found atwww.femstats.net). In Ohio, as in the rest of the nation, disparities along racial andethnic lines impede im��pede?tr.v. im��ped��ed, im��ped��ing, im��pedesTo retard or obstruct the progress of. See Synonyms at hinder1.[Latin imped women's economic progress. African American andHispanic women earn less than white and Asian American women and havelarger wage gaps with white men. African American women are less likelyto be in managerial or professional occupations than white and AsianAmerican women. Additionally, African American and Hispanic women aremuch less likely to have health insurance and much more likely to bepoor than white women in the state. With below average rankings on many indicators--and largedisparities by race and ethnicity--Ohio's women face significantobstacles to economic equality and security that impede both women andthe state from reaching their full potential. Employment and Earnings Women in Ohio rank 25th overall on the employment and earningscomposite index Composite IndexA grouping of equities, indexes or other factors combined in a standardized way, providing a useful statistical measure of overall market or sector performance over time. Also known simply as a "composite". , earning the state a grade of C on this measure ofwomen's economic status (Table 1). Ohio ranks in the middle thirdfor women's median annual earnings, at 19th in the nation, and forits ratio of women's to men's earnings, at 30th (Maps 3 and4). The state is also in the middle third for women's labor forceparticipation, at 26th, and for the percent of women in managerial andprofessional occupations, at 34th in the nation (Maps 5 and 6). Thesefour indicators reflect women's ability to enter and secure equalstanding in the labor market labor marketA place where labor is exchanged for wages; an LM is defined by geography, education and technical expertise, occupation, licensure or certification requirements, and job experience . Ohio's rankings in the bottom half of states for the wageratio, women's labor force participation, and the proportion ofwomen in managerial and professional occupations indicate that Ohiowomen continue to face barriers to employment and good-paying jobs.Ohio's ranking for the level of women's earnings is slightlybetter, but still suggests that improved economic opportunity for womenis needed. Women's Earnings in Ohio Earnings are the largest source of income for most families, andfor dual-earner and single-mother families, women's earnings arecrucial to economic well-being. In fact, over the years women'searnings have become increasingly important to families' financialstatus, often helping to keep them above poverty (Cancian, Danziger, andGottschalk Gottschalkor Gottschalck(both: gôt`shälk), d. c.868, German theologian; son of the count of Saxony. He was placed as a boy in the monastery of Fulda (c.822). 1993; Cattan 1998; Spalter-Roth, Hartmann Hartmann is a surname and may refer to: Hartmann von Aue Eduard Von Hartmann Erich Hartmann, German fighter ace (1922-1993) Felix Cardinal von Hartmann Heinz Hartmann, Viennese psychoanalyst, developer of Ego Psychology (1894-1970) , and Andrews Noun 1. Andrews - United States naturalist who contributed to paleontology and geology (1884-1960)Roy Chapman Andrews 1990;Winkler Winkler may refer to: Winkler, Manitoba, a Canadian city Winkler (novel), by Giles Coren Winkler (crater), a crater on the Moon Winkler (surname), people with the surname Winkler or Winckler See also 1998). While in 1979, wives' earnings accounted for 16percent of the average family income of middle-quintile, married-couplefamilies with children, in 2000 they accounted for 27 percent of thatincome (Mishel, Bernstein Bern��stein? , Leonard 1918-1990.American conductor and composer who wrote numerous choral and symphonic works, including Kaddish (1963), and musicals, notably On the Town (1944) and West Side Story (1957). , and Boushey 2003). Despite the importance ofwomen's earnings to family well-being, women continue to earn lesson average than men in every state in the nation. [ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] Ohio women working full-time, year-round earned the same as womennationally in 2005, at $31,800 (Table 1 and Appendix III) (2). Theirearnings are far lower than those of women in the District of Columbia District of Columbia,federal district (2000 pop. 572,059, a 5.7% decrease in population since the 1990 census), 69 sq mi (179 sq km), on the east bank of the Potomac River, coextensive with the city of Washington, D.C. (the capital of the United States). ($42,400) and Maryland Maryland(mâr`ələnd), one of the Middle Atlantic states of the United States. It is bounded by Delaware and the Atlantic Ocean (E), the District of Columbia (S), Virginia and West Virginia (S, W), and Pennsylvania (N). ($39,300), which rank first and second in thenation, but much higher than the earnings of women in Arkansas Arkansas, river, United StatesArkansas(ärkăn`zəs, är`kənsô'), river, c.1,450 mi (2,330 km) long, rising in the Rocky Mts., central Colo. andMontana ($24,800), which tied for last place (see Appendix III). Ohioranks third for women's earnings in the East North Central region,behind Illinois and Michigan, where women earned $33,100 and $32,600,respectively. Most women of color in the state have lower earnings than whitewomen. In 2005, white women's median annual earnings were $31,800.(3) African American and Hispanic women's median annual earningsfell below that level at $28,800 and $27,000 per year, respectively (seeTable 2). Asian American women outearn all groups at $35,900 annually.As shown in Figure 1, white, Asian American, and African American womenin Ohio earned less than their national counterparts in 2005. Hispanicwomen in Ohio earned more than their counterparts did nationally,however. The Wage Gap in Ohio Many factors help explain the difference between women's andmen's wages. Earnings are determined partly by the development ofjob-related skills through education, job training, and workforceexperience, and women and men continue to differ in the amount and typesof these experiences they attain. Women and men also tend to work indifferent occupations and industries and to join unions at differentrates. Women are still grossly underrepresented un��der��rep��re��sent��ed?adj.Insufficiently or inadequately represented: the underrepresented minority groups, ignored by the government.in a number of higherpaying occupations, such as jobs in science, technology, engineering,and mathematics, and in top business jobs. These differences in humancapital and job characteristics may also result from discrimination, aswomen face greater barriers to obtaining education or experience or arediscouraged dis��cour��age?tr.v. dis��cour��aged, dis��cour��ag��ing, dis��cour��ag��es1. To deprive of confidence, hope, or spirit.2. To hamper by discouraging; deter.3. or prevented from entering certain occupations orindustries. [ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] Research by the U.S. Government Accountability Office The Government Accountability Office (GAO) is the audit, evaluation, and investigative arm of the United States Congress, and thus an agency in the Legislative Branch of the United States Government. (2003) showsthat for the period from 1983 to 2000, only two-thirds of the gap inwomen's and men's earnings was explained by the combinedeffect of differences in worker characteristics like work experience,time out of the labor force, education, industry and occupation,unionization, and work hours. An additional study found that most of thegap in earnings between men and women in 2000 occurred within givenoccupations (Cotter cot��ter?n.1. A bolt, wedge, key, or pin inserted through a slot in order to hold parts together.2. A cotter pin.[Origin unknown. , Hermsen (Homogeneous Emergency Recovery Managed Storage Enterprise Network) A distributed storage network from AVC Global Services, Eatontown, NJ (www.avcglobal.com) that splits an individual RAID system across geographic boundaries. , and Vanneman 2004). These findings suggestthat sex discrimination continues to play a role in maintaining the gapbetween women's and men's earnings. In Ohio, the wage ratio between women and men in 2005 was 74.8percent. Ohio ranks 30th on this indicator, far behind the nation'sfrontrunners For other uses, see Frontrunner.International Frontrunners is an umbrella organization of LGBT running and walking clubs around the world. There are over 100 Frontrunners clubs worldwide, about half of which are in the United States. , including the District of Columbia and Arizona Arizona(âr'əzō`nə), state in the southwestern United States. It is bordered by Utah (N), New Mexico (E), Mexico (S), and, across the Colorado R., Nevada and California (W). where womenearn 85.5 percent and 83.8 percent of what men earn, respectively. It isfar ahead of Utah and Wyoming Wyoming, city, United StatesWyoming,city (1990 pop. 63,891), Kent co., W Mich., in the greater Grand Rapids metropolitan area, on the Grand River; settled 1832, inc. 1959. , the bottom states, where women earn 65.3and 60.7 percent of what men earn (Appendix III). Ohio ranks secondamong the East North Central states for the ratio of women's tomen's earnings, behind Illinois (see Figure 2). Every state in theregion, however, has a larger wage gap than the nation as a whole. While women in Ohio earned the same as women nationally, men whoworked full-time, year-round in 2005 earned more than their nationalcounterparts, at $42,500 compared with $41,300 (see Appendix III). Thus,while higher earnings opportunities elude e��lude?tr.v. e��lud��ed, e��lud��ing, e��ludes1. To evade or escape from, as by daring, cleverness, or skill: The suspect continues to elude the police.2. women, they are more availableto men in Ohio. Race- and gender-based earnings disparities in Ohio come to thefore Verb 1. come to the fore - make oneself visible; take action; "Young people should step to the fore and help their peers"come forward, step forward, step to the fore, step up, come out when the wages of women workers are compared to those of white men,typically the most privileged privilegednot generally available; can be used only by selected persons or substances.privileged informationinformation about a client's animals or business to which the veterinarian has access because of his/her professional . Asian American women, with the highestearnings among Ohio's women, earned 82.9 percent of what white menearned in 2005. White women, the second highest earning group of womenin Ohio, earned less than three quarters, 73.4 percent, of what whitemen earned. African American women earned two-thirds of what white menearned, at 66.5 percent, and Hispanic women earned less than two-thirds,at 62.4 percent. These disparities underscore The underscore character (_) is often used to make file, field and variable names more readable when blank spaces are not allowed. For example, NOVEL_1A.DOC, FIRST_NAME and Start_Routine. (character) underscore - _, ASCII 95. the ways in which genderand race intersect In a relational database, to match two files and produce a third file with records that are common in both. For example, intersecting an American file and a programmer file would yield American programmers. to disadvantage In policy debate, a disadvantage (abbreviated as DA, and sometimes referred to as a Disad) is an argument that a team brings up against a policy action that is being considered. StructureA DA usually has four key elements. women of color, particularly AfricanAmerican and Hispanic women. [ILLUSTRATIONS OMITTED] Women's Participation in the Labor Force in Ohio The rise in women's labor force participation over the pasthalf century constitutes one of the most remarkable changes inwomen's position in the United States. Women from all social,racial/ethnic, and educational backgrounds look for and find workoutside of the home. Women's access to the labor market affectstheir access to other resources that result from employment, likeearnings, health benefits, and Social Security benefits later on inlife. Ohio falls in the middle of all states (26th) for the percent ofwomen in the labor force (in other words Adv. 1. in other words - otherwise stated; "in other words, we are broke"put differently , women who are employed orunemployed but looking for work) in 2004, at 60.4 percent (Table 1),above the national average for women of 59.2 percent (Appendix III).Ohio ranks third among the East North Central states for the percent ofwomen in the labor force, with Wisconsin first at 66.6 percent andIndiana second at 61.0 percent. Every state in this region hasparticipation rates above the national average. Men in Ohio alsoparticipate in the labor force at higher rates than men nationally (73.5percent compared with 71.8 percent, respectively; see Appendix III). Labor force participation rates differ by women's race andethnicity as well. In 2005, Asian American women had the lowest laborforce participation rates among Ohio's women, at 55.3 percent(Table 2). African American women had the highest, at 61.6 percent.White women (59.8 percent) and Hispanic women (58.6 percent) fellbetween these groups. Ohio Women in Managerial and Professional Occupations The occupations and industries in which women work have a stronginfluence on their earnings, benefits, and opportunities for growth. Forexample, women in managerial and professional positions and those whoown their own businesses often earn more and have greater jobflexibility than those in service jobs (U.S. Department of Labor, Bureauof Labor Statistics Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS)A research agency of the U.S. Department of Labor; it compiles statistics on hours of work, average hourly earnings, employment and unemployment, consumer prices and many other variables. 2006b; McCrate 2002). Lower-wage occupations oftenlack basic benefits, such as health insurance and paid sick leave, whichare critical to economic security. Ohio ranks in the middle of all states, at 26th, for the proportionof women workers in managerial and professional occupations, 31.8percent in 2002. This puts Ohio below the national average of 35.5percent, and far below the highest-ranked states: the District ofColumbia (52.5 percent), Maryland (43.1 percent), and Virginia Virginia, state, United StatesVirginia,state of the south-central United States. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean (E), North Carolina and Tennessee (S), Kentucky and West Virginia (W), and Maryland and the District of Columbia (N and NE). (40.3percent; Appendix III). Ohio ranks third in the East North Centralregion for the percent of women in managerial and professionaloccupations, behind Illinois and Michigan where 33.0 percent and 32.5percent of women, respectively, hold such occupations. Women's access to employment in professional and managerialjobs also varies by race and ethnicity. As Figure 3 shows, Ohio'swhite and African American women were less likely to be in managerialand professional jobs than their national counterparts in 2005. AsianAmerican women were much more likely. In fact, over half of thestate's employed Asian American women (52.8 percent) held suchoccupations, far above the rate of 44.5 percent among Asian Americanwomen nationally. Data for Hispanic and Native American women in Ohiowere excluded due to small sample sizes. African American women in Ohio fare the worst. Only 29.6 percentheld managerial or professional jobs in 2005, below the rate for theirnational counterparts as well as for white and Asian American women inthe state. The implications for this are far reaching--African Americanwomen face a substantial barrier to a category of positions that providegood pay, professional growth, and a host of benefits that wouldpositively impact their economic well-being. Social and Economic Autonomy Women in Ohio rank 29th in the nation on the Social and EconomicAutonomy index, earning a grade of C-. The state falls in the top thirdof all states for women's health Women's HealthDefinitionWomen's health is the effect of gender on disease and health that encompasses a broad range of biological and psychosocial issues. insurance coverage, at 17th (Map7). It ranks in the bottom third for women's educationalattainment Educational attainment is a term commonly used by statisticans to refer to the highest degree of education an individual has completed.[1]The US Census Bureau Glossary defines educational attainment as "the highest level of education completed in terms of the , at 39th, and the middle third for women's povertylevels, at 19th (Maps 8 and 10). Ohio ranks in the top third of statesfor the percent of women-owned businesses, at 17th (Map 9). Combined, these indicators reflect women's access to economicopportunity and independence. Ohio's ranking and grade in this areamake clear the need for increased investments in women's healthcare coverage, educational access, entrepreneurship en��tre��pre��neur?n.A person who organizes, operates, and assumes the risk for a business venture.[French, from Old French, from entreprendre, to undertake; see enterprise. , and povertyreduction to put women on the road to economic independence. Ohio Women and Health Insurance Health insurance coverage is critical to women's economicstability. Health problems can create major obstacles to women'sability to work, and employer-provided health insurance coverageimproves women's job retention (Lee 2004). Ohio ranks 17th in the nation for the percent of women with healthinsurance coverage, at 85.9 percent in 2005 (Table 1). This rate ofcoverage puts Ohio ahead of the national average of 81.4 percent, butbehind states like Minnesota Minnesota, state, United StatesMinnesota(mĭn'ĭsō`tə), upper midwestern state of the United States. It is bordered by Lake Superior and Wisconsin (E), Iowa (S), South Dakota and North Dakota (W), and the Canadian provinces , which ranks first at 91.0 percent, andHawaii, which ranks second at 88.6 percent (Appendix III). Ohio ranksthird of six among the East North Central states on this indicator,behind Wisconsin (88.6 percent) and Michigan (86.0 percent) but ahead ofIllinois (83.2 percent) and Indiana (82.6 percent; Appendix III). [ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] Women in all racial and ethnic groups in Ohio were more likely tobe insured than their national counterparts. Figure 4 shows strongdisparities among Ohio's women, however. While 87.2 percent ofwhite women had health insurance in 2005, only 80.3 percent of AfricanAmerican women and 69.0 percent of Hispanic women were insured (data forNative American women in Ohio were unavailable due to small samplesizes). At 88.0 percent, Asian American women were slightly more likelyto be insured than white women. Lower rates of insurance coverage forAfrican American and Hispanic women may be attributable attributableemanating from or pertaining to attribute.attributable proportionsee attributable risk (below).attributable risk to their greaterprevalence prevalence/prev��a��lence/ (prev��ah-lins) the number of cases of a specific disease present in a given population at a certain time. prev��a��lencen. in jobs that lack health benefits, such as lower-levelservice jobs. An examination of 2000 Census census,periodic official count of the number of persons and their condition and of the resources of a country. In ancient times, among the Jews and Romans, such enumeration was mainly for taxation and conscription purposes. data by the Institute forWomen's Policy Research The Institute for Women's Policy Research (IWPR) conducts and disseminates research that addresses the needs of women, promotes public dialogue, and strengthens families, communities, and societies. shows that around a quarter of AfricanAmerican, Hispanic, and Native American women worked in serviceoccupations nationally, compared with 16 percent of white and AsianAmerican women (Caiazza, Shaw, Werschkul 2004). Women's Educational Attainment in Ohio Women's access to education influences their access to thelabor market, earnings, and career advancement A gift of money or property made by a person while alive to his or her child or other legally recognized heir, the value of which the person intends to be deducted from the child's or heir's eventual share in the estate after the giver's death. . Women in the UnitedStates have made steady progress in increasing their levels ofeducation. The proportion of women 25 and older with a college degree ormore has nearly doubled from 13.6 percent in 1980 (compared with 20.9percent of men) to 26.5 percent in 2005 (compared with 28.9 percent ofmen; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census Noun 1. Bureau of the Census - the bureau of the Commerce Department responsible for taking the census; provides demographic information and analyses about the population of the United StatesCensus Bureau 2006h).Women's gains in educational credentials CREDENTIALS, international law. The instruments which authorize and establish a public minister in his character with the state or prince to whom they are addressed. If the state or prince receive the minister, he can be received only in the quality attributed to him in his credentials. have not translated intocomplete equality in earnings and occupational distribution, however.Also, there is still room for improvement for many women of color whocontinue to lack access to higher education. [ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] Ohio falls in the bottom third nationally for the proportion of itswomen aged 25 and older with a four-year college degree or more, at 39th(22.7 percent in 2005). This puts women in the state behind theirnational counterparts (26.5 percent of whom hold at least a four-yearcollege degree), and far behind the nation's frontrunners, such asthe District of Columbia (45.3 percent and 1st in the nation) andMassachusetts (35.6 percent and 2nd). Ohio also ranks low (4th) in theEast North Central region for the proportion of women with at least afour-year college degree, ahead of Indiana (21.2 percent) but behindMichigan (23.5 percent), Wisconsin (23.5 percent), and Illinois (27.7percent). And it is well behind Minnesota, the Midwestern Mid��west? or Middle WestA region of the north-central United States around the Great Lakes and the upper Mississippi Valley. It is generally considered to include Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, and state with thehighest ranking on this indicator, at eighth in the nation with 32.3percent of women holding at least a four-year college degree. Ohio women's educational attainment differs greatly by raceand ethnicity, with 22.8 percent of white women, 55.3 percent AsianAmerican women, and only 14.3 percent of African American women holdinga four-year college degree or more in 2005 (data for Hispanic and NativeAmerican women were excluded due to unreliability of sample sizes; seeFigure 5). Both white and African American women do worse than theirnational counterparts, but Asian American women in Ohio far exceed AsianAmerican women nationally. The low rate of educational attainment forAfrican American women has serious implications for their ability tomove out of low-wage jobs, which they are more likely to hold, andpoverty, which they are more likely to experience. Women's Business Ownership in Ohio Owning a business can bring women increased control over theirworking lives and create important financial and social opportunitiesfor them. It can encompass a wide range of arrangements, from being alarge shareholder in a corporation, to consulting, to providing childcare for others in one's home. Overall, both the number andproportion of businesses owned by women have been growing. [ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] Ohio ranks in the top third of all states for women's businessownership at 17th. In 2002, 28.1 percent of businesses in the state werewomen-owned, almost equal to the national average of 28.2 percent butbehind the nation's leading states: the District of Columbia at33.2 percent, Maryland at 31.0 percent, and New Mexico New Mexico,state in the SW United States. At its northwestern corner are the so-called Four Corners, where Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah meet at right angles; New Mexico is also bordered by Oklahoma (NE), Texas (E, S), and Mexico (S). at 30.9 percent(Appendix III). The state ranks third in its region on this indicator,behind Illinois (29.7 percent) and Michigan (29.6 percent) and ahead ofIndiana (27.4 percent) and Wisconsin (26.5 percent). Ohio Women and Poverty Women bear substantial responsibility for their families'economic well-being, and factors such as the wage gap, women'sprevalence in low-paid, female-dominated occupations, and their lowrelative hours of paid work all impede their ability to ensure theirfamilies' financial security, particularly for single mothers. In2002 single mother families were half of all families living in poverty(Institute for Women's Policy Research 2003). Ohio ranks 19th in the nation for the proportion of women who liveabove the poverty line. In 2005, women were less likely to be poor inOhio than women nationally, with 88.5 percent above poverty comparedwith 87.3 percent, but more likely to be poor than women in NewHampshire New Hampshire,one of the New England states of the NE United States. It is bordered by Massachusetts (S), Vermont, with the Connecticut R. forming the boundary (W), the Canadian province of Quebec (NW), and Maine and a short strip of the Atlantic Ocean (E). and Minnesota, first and second in the nation with 93.4 and92.6 percent of their women above poverty, respectively (Appendix III).Ohio ranks highly in the East North Central region on this indicator,second only to Wisconsin, where 89.2 percent of women are above poverty. Poverty disproportionately dis��pro��por��tion��ate?adj.Out of proportion, as in size, shape, or amount.dispro��por affects women of color in Ohio, as itdoes in the United States as a whole. In 2005, 89.3 percent of whitewomen in Ohio lived above the poverty line, while 87.8 percent of AsianAmerican women did (see Figure 6). In contrast, 76.3 percent of Hispanicwomen, 73.9 percent of Native American women, and 71.4 percent ofAfrican American lived above the poverty line. In other words,approximately ap��prox��i��mate?adj.1. Almost exact or correct: the approximate time of the accident.2. one in four African American, Hispanic, and NativeAmerican women in Ohio lives in poverty. Their greater likelihood ofbeing poor underscores the disadvantages these women face in the jobmarket. [ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] Conclusions and Policy Recommendations Women in Ohio face substantial challenges that demand attentionfrom policymakers, advocates, and researchers alike. The economic statusof the state's women is mediocre me��di��o��cre?adj.Moderate to inferior in quality; ordinary. See Synonyms at average.[French m��diocre, from Latin mediocris : medius, middle; see medhyo- at best, with rankings in thebottom half of all states on four of eight indicators--the wage ratio,women's labor force participation, women in managerial andprofessional occupations, and women's educational attainment. Theseindicators represent fundamental issues of gender equality and access toopportunity. Furthermore, disparities by race and ethnicity impede many women ofcolor in the state from equal and sufficient access to higher education,health care, and better paying jobs. The state's African Americanwomen in particular lack access to opportunity and resources that allowfor economic security and stability. Ohio must invest more in its women,to improve both their status and the economic well-being of the state asa whole. Policies and programs designed to diminish gender- andrace-based inequities should be at the forefront of local and statepolicymaking pol��i��cy��mak��ingor pol��i��cy-mak��ing ?n.High-level development of policy, especially official government policy.adj.Of, relating to, or involving the making of high-level policy: efforts. * Ohio should invest in policy options that support women asworkers and mothers and as important contributors to the state'seconomy. High quality, affordable child care services are critical towomen's ability to enter the labor market and to find and retainemployment. Ohio is to be commended for increasing the value of itsrefundable RefundableEligible for refunding under the terms of a bond indenture. tax credits for child and dependent care targeted atlow-income families, and should continue to do so (National Women'sLaw Center 2006). The state should also expand public funds See Fund, 3.See also: Public andeligibility through Temporary Assistance to Needy need��y?adj. need��i��er, need��i��est1. Being in need; impoverished. See Synonyms at poor.2. Wanting or needing affection, attention, or reassurance, especially to an excessive degree. Families and the ChildCare Development Fund to ensure poor and low-income Ohio women haveaccess to safe, reliable, and nurturing environments for their childrenwithout exhausting their income. * Ohio's recent raise in the minimum wage (Grant 2006) is astep in the right direction for improving the situation for workingwomen, but state and local policymakers should not stop there. Localliving wage ordinances based on good measures of what a family needs tomaintain a basic standard of living would greatly improve women'seconomic well-being. To do this, local governments could adopt an OhioSelf-Sufficiency Standard, such as that calculated by the Women'sFund of the Greater Cincinnati Cincinnati(sĭnsənăt`ē, –năt`ə), city (1990 pop. 364,040), seat of Hamilton co., extreme SW Ohio, on the Ohio River opposite Newport and Covington, Ky.; inc. as a city 1819. Foundation for its region usingmethodology developed by Wider Opportunities for Women (The Women'sFund of the Greater Cincinnati Foundation 2005). This measure assessesthe wages needed for a basic standard of living that includes familyexpenses like child care and housing. It is a measure that can serve asan income eligibility guideline guidelineMedtalk A series of recommendations by a body of experts in a particular discipline. See Cancer screening guidelines, Cardiac profile guidelines, Gatekeeper guidelines, Harvard guidelines, Transfusion guidelines. for programs and policies designed tohelp families achieve economic security. * Women in Ohio would benefit from better state and local datacollection that allows for gender- and age-based analysis and evaluationof policy impact and outcomes. Data collection that allows forbreakdowns by sex and age will help Ohio's advocates andpolicymakers understand the differing impacts of policies, programs, andpractices on women, men, girls, and boys. * Women in Ohio need policies that will help to keep them and theirfamilies safe from financial hardship due to health problems oraccidents. Public health programs like Medicaid Medicaid,national health insurance program in the United States for low-income persons; established in 1965 with passage of the Social Security Amendments and now run by the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. should be expanded toreach a wider range of at-risk and uninsured women whose incomes areabove the current eligibility limit of 100 percent of the poverty line(Community Research Partners 2004), but who are still in need of publicservices Public services is a term usually used to mean services provided by government to its citizens, either directly (through the public sector) or by financing private provision of services. . * Women workers in Ohio would benefit from paid time off programsincluding sick days, parental leave, and time for family care--benefitsoften least available to the lowest-paid workers. Access to thesebenefits can be expanded through federal and state policies such asminimum paid time off standards, new temporary disability programs, andextension of existing programs to include family care benefits. * Ohio should invest in non-traditional job training programs forwomen, to help move them out of the low-wage labor market and into jobsthat are stable and family-friendly, and that provide health and otherbenefits. * Ohio's policies should ensure better access to education,which brings with it opportunities for better jobs and better pay forwomen. Educational attainment should be encouraged among all women inthe state, and especially women of color. Policies encouragingwomen's enrollment in higher education and increased federal andstate financial aid and scholarship programs designed to reduce economicbarriers would open up doors for women of color in Ohio. AfricanAmerican women's educational opportunities in the state should be aparticular focus of investment and scholarship and grant programs. * Businesses in Ohio should regularly evaluate their wage andpromotion practices to ensure that men and women of all races andethnicities are fairly compensated compensated/com��pen��sat��ed/ (kom��pen-sa?tid) counterbalanced; offset. for their work. Employers could berequired by federal, state, or local policies or by union contracts toshow that comparable jobs are paid fairly, using tools such as jobevaluation Job evaluation is the process of systematically determining a relative value of jobs in an organisation. In all cases the idea is to evaluate the job, not the person doing it.Job Ranking is the most simple form. systems that measure job content on many dimensions. * Women's business ownership can be encouraged by increasingcontract set-asides for women-owned businesses at all levels ofgovernment. Public funds for providing technical assistance and loans tosmall businesses can also be augmented. Large corporations can enhancetheir business development policies for contractors and suppliers toimprove the success of women owned businesses. * Ohio women would benefit from policies and practices that promoteand encourage women's political leadership and voice, including inelected e��lect?v. e��lect��ed, e��lect��ing, e��lectsv.tr.1. To select by vote for an office or for membership.2. To pick out; select: elect an art course. and appointed ap��point?tr.v. ap��point��ed, ap��point��ing, ap��points1. To select or designate to fill an office or a position: appointed her the chief operating officer of the company.2. government leadership positions. More space forwomen at the state's decision-making tables will help bring agender lens and more balanced perspective to public policy-making byaffording women a greater opportunity to raise the visibility of andaddress the social and economic issues they face in their communities.Ohio's political parties and advocacy The act of Pleading or arguing a case or a position; forceful persuasion. groups should encourage andpromote women to run for political office. Appendix I. Methodology, Terms, and Sources for the CompositeIndices and Grades Composite Employment and Earnings Index. This composite index consists of four component indicators: medianannual earnings for women, the ratio of the earnings of women to theearnings of men, women's labor force participation, and the percentof employed women in managerial and professional specialty A contract under seal.A specialty is a written document that has been sealed and delivered and is given as security for the payment of a specifically indicated debt. occupations. To construct this composite index, each of the four componentindicators was first standardized. For each of the four indicators, theobserved value for the state was divided by the comparable value for theentire United States. The resulting values were summed for each state tocreate a composite score. Each of the four component indicators hasequal weight in the composite. The states were ranked from the highestto the lowest score. To grade the states on this composite index, values for each of thecomponents were set at desired levels to produce an "idealscore." Women's earnings were set at the median annualearnings for men in the United States as a whole; the wage ratio was setat 100 percent, as if women earned as much as men; women's laborforce participation was set at the national figure for men; and women inmanagerial and professional positions was set at the highest score forall states. Each state's score was then compared with the idealscore to determine the state's grade. Women's Median Annual Earnings: Median yearly earnings (in2005 dollars) of noninstitutionalized adj. 1. not committed to an institution; - op people. Opposite of institutionalized nt>.Adj. 1. noninstitutionalized - not committed to an institutionnoninstitutionalised women aged 16 and older who workedfull-time, year-round (more than 49 weeks during the year and more than34 hours per week) in each year. Earnings were converted to constantdollars using the Consumer Price Index Research Series (CPI-U-RS), andthe median was selected from the merged data file for the three years.Three years of data were used in order to ensure a sufficiently large In mathematics, the phrase sufficiently large is used in contexts such as: is true for sufficiently large sample for each state. Sample sizes for women range from 800 in Montanato 6,834 in California California(kăl'ĭfôr`nyə), most populous state in the United States, located in the Far West; bordered by Oregon (N), Nevada and, across the Colorado River, Arizona (E), Mexico (S), and the Pacific Ocean (W). ; for men, sample sizes range from 1,087 inLouisiana Louisiana(ləwē'zēăn`ə, lē'–), state in the S central United States. It is bounded by Mississippi, with the Mississippi R. to 10,401 in California. These earnings data have not beenadjusted for cost-of-living differences between the states because thefederal government does not produce an index of such differences.Although all the data presented combine data from 2003, 2004, and 2005,they are labeled 2005 in the report. Source: Calculations of the 2004-06Annual Social and Economic Supplement Demographic See demographics. Files from the CurrentPopulation Survey for calendar years 2003-05; Institute for Women'sPolicy Research 2006b. Ratio of Women's to Men's Earnings: Median yearlyearnings (in 2005 dollars) of noninstitutionalized women aged 16 andolder who worked full-time, year-round (more than 49 weeks during theyear and more than 34 hours per week) in each year divided by the medianyearly earnings (in 2005 dollars) of noninstitutionalized men aged 16and older who worked full-time, year-round (more than 49 weeks duringthe year and more than 34 hours per week) in each year. See thedescription of women's median annual earnings, above, for a moredetailed description of the methodology and for sample sizes. Source:Calculations of the 2004-06 Annual Social and Economic SupplementDemographic Files from the Current Population Survey for calendar years2003-05; Institute for Women's Policy Research 2006b. Women's Labor Force Participation (proportion of the adultfemale population in the labor force): Percent of civiliannoninstitutionalized women aged 16 and older who were employed orlooking for work (in 2004). This includes those employed full-time,part-time voluntarily, or part-time involuntarily in��vol��un��tar��y?adj.1. Acting or done without or against one's will: an involuntary participant in what turned out to be an argument.2. , and those who areunemployed. Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics2006a (based on the Current Population Survey). Women in Managerial and Professional Occupations: Percent ofcivilian noninstitutionalized women aged 16 and older who were employedin executive, administrative, managerial, or professional specialtyoccupations (in 2002). Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of LaborStatistics 2004 (based on the Current Population Survey). Composite Social and Economic Autonomy Index. This composite indexreflects four aspects of women's social and economic well-being:access to health insurance, educational attainment, business ownership,and the percent of women above the poverty level. To construct this composite index, each of the four componentindicators was first standardized. For each indicator, the observedvalue for the state was divided by the comparable value for the UnitedStates as a whole. The resulting values were summed for each state tocreate a composite score. To create the composite score, women'shealth insurance coverage, educational attainment, and businessownership were given a weight of 1.0, while poverty was given a weightof 4.0 (in the first three series of reports, published in 1996, 1998,and 2000, this indicator was given a weight of 1.0, but in 2002 IWPR IWPR Institute for War & Peace Reporting (UK)IWPR Institute for Women's Policy Research began weighting it at 4.0). The states were ranked from the highest tothe lowest score. To grade the states on this composite index, values for each of thecomponents were set at desired levels to produce an "idealscore." The percentage of women with health insurance was set atthe highest value for all states; the percentage of women with highereducation was set at the national value for men; the percentage ofbusinesses owned by women was set as if 50 percent of businesses wereowned by women; and the percentage of women in poverty was set at thenational value for men. Each state's score was then compared withthe ideal score to determine its grade. Percent with Health Insurance: Percent of civiliannoninstitutionalized women aged 18 through 64 who are insured. Followingthe methodology used by the Census Bureau Noun 1. Census Bureau - the bureau of the Commerce Department responsible for taking the census; provides demographic information and analyses about the population of the United StatesBureau of the Census , individuals who reported nocoverage other than the Indian Health Plan are considered uninsured.Three years of data were used in order to ensure a sufficiently largesample for each state. Although all the data presented combine data from2003, 2004, and 2005, they are labeled 2005 in the report. Data for thisindicator were also disaggregated Broken up into parts. by race and ethnicity. The data forwhites, African Americans, Asian Americans This page is a list of Asian Americans. Politics1956 - Dalip Singh Saund became the first Asian immigrant elected to the U.S. Congress upon his election to the House of Representatives. 1959 - Hiram Fong became the first Asian American elected to the U.S. Senate. , and Native Americans do notinclude Hispanics, and Hispanics, who may be of any race, are reportedseparately. Native Hawaiians This is a list of notable Native Hawaiians: James Aiona, politician Daniel K. Akaka, politician Eddie Aikau, famous surfer Jesse Kuhaulua, sumo wrestler Akebono, sumo wrestler D. G. Anderson, politician S. and Pacific Islanders Islanders may refer to: New York Islanders, a ice hockey team based in Uniondale, New York that plays on the National Hockey League (NHL). Puerto Rico Islanders, a Puerto Rican soccer team in the USL First Division, that currently play their home games at Juan Ramon were included withinAsian American. Source: Calculations of the 2004-06 Annual Social andEconomic Supplement Demographic Files from the Current Population Surveyfor calendar years 2003-05; Institute for Women's Policy Research2006b. Educational Attainment: Percent of civilian noninstitutionalizedwomen from ages 25 and older with a four-year college degree or higher.Three years of data were used in order to ensure a sufficiently largesample for each state. Although all the data presented combine data from2003, 2004, and 2005, they are labeled 2005 in the report. Source:Calculations of the 2004-06 Annual Social and Economic SupplementDemographic Files from the Current Population Survey for calendar years2003-05; Institute for Women's Policy Research 2006b. Women's Business Ownership: In 2002, the percent of all firms(legal entities engaged in economic activity during any part of 2002that filed an IRS An abbreviation for the Internal Revenue Service, a federal agency charged with the responsibility of administering and enforcing internal revenue laws. Form 1040, Schedule C; 1065; any 1120; or 941) ownedby women. This indicator includes five legal forms of organization: Ccorporations (any legally incorporated business, except subchapter S Subchapter SIRS regulation that gives a corporation with 35 or fewer shareholders the option of being taxed as a partnership to escape corporate income taxes. ,under state laws), Subchapter S corporations (those with fewer than 75shareholders who elect to be taxed as individuals), individualproprietorships (including self-employed self-em��ployedadj.Earning one's livelihood directly from one's own trade or business rather than as an employee of another.self individuals), partnerships, andothers (a category encompassing cooperatives, estates, receiverships,and businesses classified as unknown legal forms of organization). TheBureau of the Census determines the sex of business owners by matchingthe social security numbers of individuals who file business tax returnswith Social Security Administration records providing the sex codesindicated by individuals or their parents on their original applicationsfor social security numbers. For partnerships and corporations, abusiness is classified as women-owned based on the sex of the majorityof the owners. Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census2006b, based on the 2002 Economic Census. Percent of Women Above Poverty: In 2003-05, the percent of womenliving above the official poverty threshold The poverty threshold, or poverty line, is the minimum level of income deemed necessary to achieve an adequate standard of living. In practice, like the definition of poverty, the official or common understanding of the poverty line is significantly higher in developed , which varies by family sizeand composition, in each year. In 2005, the poverty threshold for thefamily of four (with two children) was $19,806 (in 2005 dollars).Although all the data presented combine data from 2003, 2004, and 2005,they are labeled 2005 in the report. Source: Calculations of the 2004-06Annual Social and Economic Supplement Demographic Files from the CurrentPopulation Survey for the calendar years 2003-05; Institute forWomen's Policy Research 2006b. Appendix II. Methodology for American Community Survey Data on Raceand Ethnicity Using 2005 American Community Survey data published by the CensusBureau, IWPR is able to provide statistics disaggregated by race andethnicity on a variety of indicators of women's economic status,including earnings, the gender wage ratio, labor force participation,education, and poverty in this report. The data included in this report for whites, African Americans,Asian Americans, and Native Americans do not include Hispanics, andHispanics, who may be of any race, are reported separately. In contrast,most data produced by the Census Bureau include Hispanics in whateverracial group they report and then, in addition, note the number who alsoreport being Hispanic. As a result, the numbers in this report for thevarious racial groups generally differ from Census Bureau numbers. This report includes Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islanders in theAsian American category for all indicators disaggregated by race andethnicity except poverty. The Census Bureau does not combine these twogroups, and as a result Census Bureau numbers for Asian Americans maydiffer from those reported here.Appendix III. How the States Measure Up: Women's Status on theEmployment and Earnings Composite Index and Its Components Composite IndexState Score Rank GradeAlabama 3.77 39 DAlaska 4.22 6 BArizona 3.99 17 C+Arkansas 3.47 51 FCalifornia 4.14 11 B-Colorado 4.21 8 BConnecticut 4.20 9 BDelaware 4.00 16 C+District of Columbia 4.98 1 A-Florida 3.81 35 D+Georgia 4.06 13 B-Hawaii 3.99 17 C+Idaho 3.53 49 FIllinois 3.97 20 C+Indiana 3.79 38 D+Iowa 3.86 30 C-Kansas 3.96 21 CKentucky 3.74 41 DLouisiana 3.50 50 FMaine 3.96 21 CMaryland 4.57 20 B+Massachusetts 4.27 40 BMichigan 3.86 30 C-Minnesota 4.23 50 BMississippi 3.56 47 FMissouri 3.98 19 C+Montana 3.63 43 D-Nebraska 3.89 25 CNevada 3.87 29 CNew Hampshire 4.07 12 B-New Jersey 4.28 30 BNew Mexico 3.61 44 D-New York 4.01 15 C+North Carolina 3.85 33 C-North Dakota 3.80 36 D+Ohio 3.89 25 COklahoma 3.77 39 DOregon 3.91 24 CPennsylvania 3.84 34 C-Rhode Island 3.92 23 CSouth Carolina 3.80 36 D+South Dakota 3.86 30 C-Tennessee 3.70 42 DTexas 3.88 28 CUtah 3.60 46 D-Vermont 4.18 10 BVirginia 4.22 60 BWashington 4.03 14 C+West Virginia 3.56 47 FWisconsin 3.89 25 CWyoming 3.61 44 D-United States 4.00 Median Annual Earnings Full-Time, Year-Round for Employed WomenState Dollars RankAlabama $29,700 34Alaska $36,100 6Arizona $32,000 16Arkansas $24,800 50California $35,100 7Colorado $34,000 10Connecticut $38,200 4Delaware $32,000 16District of Columbia $42,400 1Florida $30,000 29Georgia $31,700 23Hawaii $31,800 19Idaho $27,000 43Illinois $33,100 14Indiana $30,000 29Iowa $29,700 34Kansas $30,000 29Kentucky $28,900 37Louisiana $26,500 45Maine $30,300 28Maryland $39,300 2Massachusetts $37,200 50Michigan $32,600 15Minnesota $35,000 8Mississippi $25,800 47Missouri $30,800 27Montana $24,800 50Nebraska $28,900 37Nevada $31,000 24New Hampshire $34,000 10New Jersey $38,900 3New Mexico $25,800 47New York $33,300 13North Carolina $29,800 33North Dakota $26,000 46Ohio $31,800 19Oklahoma $27,600 41Oregon $31,000 24Pennsylvania $31,800 19Rhode Island $32,000 16South Carolina $27,700 40South Dakota $26,900 44Tennessee $29,000 36Texas $30,000 29Utah $28,000 39Vermont $31,800 19Virginia $34,000 10Washington $34,100 9West Virginia $27,600 41Wisconsin $31,000 24Wyoming $25,800 47United States $31,800 Earnings Ratio between Full-Time, Year-Round Employed Women and MenState Percent RankAlabama 74.3% 32Alaska 77.6% 16Arizona 83.8% 2Arkansas 71.5% 43California 82.6% 4Colorado 76.2% 19Connecticut 71.9% 40Delaware 77.5% 17District of Columbia 85.5% 1Florida 80.6% 7Georgia 83.0% 3Hawaii 79.5% 10Idaho 67.7% 48Illinois 76.1% 23Indiana 72.6% 38Iowa 75.2% 28Kansas 75.0% 29Kentucky 76.1% 23Louisiana 66.3% 49Maine 75.8% 25Maryland 82.2% 5Massachusetts 72.0% 39Michigan 69.8% 47Minnesota 77.8% 14Mississippi 73.7% 33Missouri 75.3% 27Montana 72.9% 36Nebraska 75.7% 26Nevada 81.8% 6New Hampshire 71.1% 45New Jersey 77.8% 14New Mexico 71.7% 42New York 78.4% 12North Carolina 79.7% 9North Dakota 71.8% 41Ohio 74.8% 30Oklahoma 76.2% 19Oregon 73.1% 35Pennsylvania 74.8% 30Rhode Island 71.1% 45South Carolina 73.7% 33South Dakota 76.9% 18Tennessee 78.0% 13Texas 80.6% 7Utah 65.3% 50Vermont 79.5% 10Virginia 76.2% 19Washington 71.3% 44West Virginia 76.2% 19Wisconsin 72.9% 36Wyoming 60.7% 51United States 77.0% Percent of Women in the Labor ForceState Percent RankAlabama 55.8% 45Alaska 65.6% 7Arizona 57.4% 42Arkansas 54.9% 49California 57.6% 39Colorado 65.3% 9Connecticut 60.0% 28Delaware 61.1% 22District of Columbia 62.3% 15Florida 55.4% 47Georgia 59.2% 33Hawaii 60.1% 27Idaho 61.3% 20Illinois 59.7% 29Indiana 61.0% 23Iowa 65.4% 8Kansas 64.5% 12Kentucky 55.4% 47Louisiana 54.9% 49Maine 61.0% 23Maryland 62.3% 15Massachusetts 61.9% 18Michigan 59.7% 29Minnesota 69.0% 2Mississippi 55.5% 46Missouri 62.7% 13Montana 62.0% 17Nebraska 68.5% 3Nevada 59.3% 32New Hampshire 64.7% 11New Jersey 58.4% 36New Mexico 57.5% 41New York 56.2% 44North Carolina 58.8% 35North Dakota 67.6% 4Ohio 60.4% 26Oklahoma 57.6% 39Oregon 59.0% 34Pennsylvania 58.1% 38Rhode Island 61.7% 19South Carolina 59.5% 31South Dakota 69.4% 1Tennessee 57.4% 42Texas 58.2% 37Utah 62.7% 13Vermont 65.8% 6Virginia 60.8% 25Washington 61.2% 21West Virginia 49.1% 51Wisconsin 66.6% 5Wyoming 65.3% 9United States 59.2% Percent of Employed Women, Managerial or Professional OccupationsState Percent RankAlabama 33.1% 25Alaska 34.4% 17Arizona 32.9% 27Arkansas 29.5% 48California 35.1% 12Colorado 37.1% 7Connecticut 37.2% 6Delaware 33.8% 20District of Columbia 52.5% 1Florida 31.3% 36Georgia 35.1% 12Hawaii 33.4% 23Idaho 27.1% 51Illinois 33.0% 26Indiana 30.9% 40Iowa 30.1% 43Kansas 33.8% 20Kentucky 32.3% 29Louisiana 31.1% 38Maine 35.1% 12Maryland 43.1% 2Massachusetts 39.7% 4Michigan 32.5% 28Minnesota 33.9% 19Mississippi 30.3% 41Missouri 34.7% 16Montana 30.3% 41Nebraska 29.9% 45Nevada 29.6% 47New Hampshire 34.9% 15New Jersey 37.6% 5New Mexico 31.9% 33New York 35.4% 9North Carolina 31.3% 36North Dakota 32.1% 32Ohio 31.8% 34Oklahoma 33.3% 24Oregon 35.2% 11Pennsylvania 31.5% 35Rhode Island 33.6% 22South Carolina 34.2% 18South Dakota 30.0% 44Tennessee 28.7% 50Texas 32.3% 29Utah 28.8% 49Vermont 36.7% 8Virginia 40.3% 3Washington 35.3% 10West Virginia 31.0% 39Wisconsin 29.8% 46Wyoming 32.3% 29United States 35.5%Appendix III. How the States Measure Up: Women's Statuson the Social and Economic Autonomy Composite Index and Its Components Composite IndexState Score Rank GradeAlabama 6.48 47 D-Alaska 7.13 15 C+Arizona 6.87 33 D+Arkansas 6.28 51 FCalifornia 7.12 16 C+Colorado 7.40 9 B-Connecticut 7.48 6 BDelaware 7.04 22 CDistrict of Columbia 7.72 1 B+Florida 6.89 31 D+Georgia 7.02 25 CHawaii 7.46 7 BIdaho 6.79 36 D+Illinois 7.16 13 C+Indiana 6.82 34 D+Iowa 7.03 23 CKansas 7.14 14 C+Kentucky 6.50 46 D-Louisiana 6.37 49 FMaine 6.88 32 D+Maryland 7.55 3 BMassachusetts 7.54 4 BMichigan 7.02 25 CMinnesota 7.57 2 BMississippi 6.47 48 D-Missouri 6.96 29 C-Montana 6.68 42 DNebraska 7.09 19 CNevada 6.81 35 D+New Hampshire 7.42 8 B-New Jersey 7.40 9 B-New Mexico 6.69 41 DNew York 7.12 16 C+North Carolina 6.76 38 D+North Dakota 7.01 27 COhio 6.96 29 C-Oklahoma 6.64 43 DOregon 7.09 19 CPennsylvania 6.97 28 C-Rhode Island 7.11 18 CSouth Carolina 6.71 39 DSouth Dakota 6.79 36 D+Tennessee 6.63 44 DTexas 6.57 45 D-Utah 7.09 19 CVermont 7.53 5 BVirginia 7.36 11 B-Washington 7.18 12 C+West Virginia 6.34 50 FWisconsin 7.03 23 CWyoming 6.71 39 DUnited States 7.00 Percent of Women with Health InsuranceState Percent RankAlabama 81.5% 32Alaska 79.3% 39Arizona 78.6% 42Arkansas 76.1% 47California 78.0% 43Colorado 81.0% 33Connecticut 87.5% 8Delaware 86.4% 13District of Columbia 86.9% 10Florida 76.4% 46Georgia 79.6% 38Hawaii 88.6% 2Idaho 79.8% 37Illinois 83.2% 26Indiana 82.6% 30Iowa 87.9% 6Kansas 86.1% 14Kentucky 82.8% 28Louisiana 73.2% 50Maine 87.9% 6Maryland 83.5% 25Massachusetts 88.3% 4Michigan 86.0% 15Minnesota 91.0% 1Mississippi 78.9% 40Missouri 84.9% 20Montana 77.3% 44Nebraska 85.2% 19Nevada 78.7% 41New Hampshire 86.0% 15New Jersey 82.8% 28New Mexico 73.8% 49New York 83.7% 23North Carolina 81.6% 31North Dakota 88.1% 5Ohio 85.9% 17Oklahoma 75.3% 48Oregon 79.9% 35Pennsylvania 86.6% 12Rhode Island 86.8% 11South Carolina 80.7% 34South Dakota 85.6% 18Tennessee 84.7% 21Texas 70.8% 51Utah 83.0% 27Vermont 87.2% 9Virginia 84.2% 22Washington 83.7% 23West Virginia 77.1% 45Wisconsin 88.6% 2Wyoming 79.9% 35United States 81.4% Percent of Women with Four or More Years of CollegeState Percent RankAlabama 19.6% 48Alaska 29.1% 13Arizona 25.2% 26Arkansas 17.6% 50California 28.8% 15Colorado 34.2% 6Connecticut 34.9% 4Delaware 25.4% 24District of Columbia 45.3% 1Florida 24.2% 32Georgia 27.5% 20Hawaii 30.4% 11Idaho 22.5% 40Illinois 27.7% 18Indiana 21.2% 45Iowa 24.0% 34Kansas 28.2% 16Kentucky 19.5% 49Louisiana 20.9% 47Maine 25.3% 25Maryland 34.6% 5Massachusetts 35.6% 2Michigan 23.5% 38Minnesota 32.3% 8Mississippi 21.8% 42Missouri 23.7% 35Montana 24.9% 28Nebraska 25.5% 23Nevada 21.4% 44New Hampshire 31.9% 9New Jersey 33.6% 7New Mexico 24.4% 30New York 30.6% 10North Carolina 24.2% 32North Dakota 27.6% 19Ohio 22.7% 39Oklahoma 21.6% 43Oregon 27.0% 21Pennsylvania 24.5% 29Rhode Island 28.9% 14South Carolina 23.6% 37South Dakota 25.0% 27Tennessee 21.9% 41Texas 23.7% 35Utah 25.9% 22Vermont 35.5% 3Virginia 30.4% 11Washington 28.0% 17West Virginia 15.2% 51Wisconsin 24.3% 31Wyoming 21.0% 46United States 26.5% Percent of Businesses that are Women-OwnedState Percent RankAlabama 26.4% 31Alaska 26.2% 34Arizona 28.8% 14Arkansas 23.7% 48California 29.9% 5Colorado 29.1% 12Connecticut 27.2% 23Delaware 24.1% 46District of Columbia 33.2% 1Florida 28.4% 16Georgia 29.1% 12Hawaii 30.1% 4Idaho 23.7% 48Illinois 29.7% 6Indiana 27.4% 21Iowa 27.0% 26Kansas 27.2% 23Kentucky 25.7% 39Louisiana 26.4% 31Maine 24.0% 47Maryland 31.0% 2Massachusetts 28.7% 15Michigan 29.6% 8Minnesota 27.9% 19Mississippi 25.1% 41Missouri 27.4% 21Montana 24.4% 44Nebraska 26.6% 28Nevada 28.1% 17New Hampshire 24.7% 43New Jersey 26.1% 36New Mexico 30.9% 3New York 29.6% 8North Carolina 27.1% 25North Dakota 23.3% 50Ohio 28.1% 17Oklahoma 25.7% 39Oregon 29.5% 10Pennsylvania 26.0% 37Rhode Island 26.5% 29South Carolina 26.2% 34South Dakota 22.4% 51Tennessee 26.0% 37Texas 27.0% 26Utah 25.1% 41Vermont 26.3% 33Virginia 29.7% 6Washington 29.4% 11West Virginia 27.7% 20Wisconsin 26.5% 29Wyoming 24.4% 44United States 28.2% Percent of Women Living Above Poverty In PovertyState Percent Rank PercentAlabama 83.1% 47 16.9%Alaska 90.0% 9 10.0%Arizona 85.7% 37 14.3%Arkansas 83.8% 44 16.2%California 87.5% 31 12.5%Colorado 89.2% 14 10.8%Connecticut 89.9% 12 10.1%Delaware 90.9% 6 9.1%District of Columbia 82.2% 49 17.8%Florida 88.0% 29 12.0%Georgia 86.7% 36 13.3%Hawaii 90.7% 7 9.3%Idaho 90.0% 9 10.0%Illinois 88.1% 27 11.9%Indiana 88.1% 27 11.9%Iowa 89.2% 14 10.8%Kansas 88.5% 19 11.5%Kentucky 83.7% 46 16.3%Louisiana 81.6% 51 18.4%Maine 87.2% 34 12.8%Maryland 89.9% 12 10.1%Massachusetts 89.2% 14 10.8%Michigan 87.8% 30 12.2%Minnesota 92.6% 2 7.4%Mississippi 82.7% 48 17.3%Missouri 88.5% 19 11.5%Montana 85.6% 38 14.4%Nebraska 90.3% 8 9.7%Nevada 88.2% 26 11.8%New Hampshire 93.4% 1 6.6%New Jersey 91.4% 4 8.6%New Mexico 82.2% 49 17.8%New York 84.8% 40 15.2%North Carolina 84.7% 41 15.3%North Dakota 88.5% 19 11.5%Ohio 88.5% 19 11.5%Oklahoma 86.9% 35 13.1%Oregon 88.3% 25 11.7%Pennsylvania 88.5% 19 11.5%Rhode Island 87.5% 31 12.5%South Carolina 85.0% 39 15.0%South Dakota 87.3% 33 12.7%Tennessee 83.9% 43 16.1%Texas 84.1% 42 15.9%Utah 91.7% 3 8.3%Vermont 91.4% 4 8.6%Virginia 90.0% 9 10.0%Washington 88.5% 19 11.5%West Virginia 83.8% 44 16.2%Wisconsin 89.2% 14 10.8%Wyoming 88.8% 18 11.2%United States 87.3%Appendix III. Selected State-by-State Indicators Median Annual Earnings Percent of Men for Full-Time, Living Above Year-Round Employed Poverty, 2005 (a)State Men, 2005 (a)Alabama $40,000 89.5%Alaska $46,500 92.3%Arizona $38,200 89.7%Arkansas $34,700 89.5%California $42,500 89.9%Colorado $44,600 91.5%Connecticut $53,100 93.2%Delaware $41,300 94.2%District of Columbia $49,600 87.9%Florida $37,200 91.4%Georgia $38,200 91.1%Hawaii $40,000 92.9%Idaho $39,900 92.1%Illinois $43,500 90.9%Indiana $41,300 93.2%Iowa $39,500 92.0%Kansas $40,000 91.2%Kentucky $38,000 88.3%Louisiana $40,000 88.1%Maine $40,000 90.6%Maryland $47,800 92.9%Massachusetts $51,700 91.9%Michigan $46,700 90.7%Minnesota $45,000 93.5%Mississippi $35,000 86.3%Missouri $40,900 91.7%Montana $34,000 88.3%Nebraska $38,200 91.7%Nevada $37,900 92.2%New Hampshire $47,800 96.1%New Jersey $50,000 94.1%New Mexico $36,000 87.9%New York $42,500 89.6%North Carolina $37,400 90.2%North Dakota $36,200 92.3%Ohio $42,500 91.9%Oklahoma $36,200 89.9%Oregon $42,400 91.0%Pennsylvania $42,500 92.6%Rhode Island $45,000 92.4%South Carolina $37,600 89.6%South Dakota $35,000 89.7%Tennessee $37,200 89.0%Texas $37,200 87.8%Utah $42,900 92.5%Vermont $40,000 93.5%Virginia $44,600 92.9%Washington $47,800 91.7%West Virginia $36,200 88.4%Wisconsin $42,500 92.2%Wyoming $42,500 93.1%National $41,300 90.8% Percent of Men Percent of Men with Four or in the Labor More Years of Force, 2004 (b) College, 2005 (a)StateAlabama 70.0% 22.3%Alaska 76.6% 25.4%Arizona 73.1% 28.2%Arkansas 70.1% 19.3%California 73.9% 32.4%Colorado 80.5% 37.3%Connecticut 73.3% 36.8%Delaware 72.0% 27.0%District of Columbia 73.9% 48.9%Florida 69.6% 28.4%Georgia 76.0% 27.5%Hawaii 69.7% 28.8%Idaho 74.8% 27.4%Illinois 73.3% 31.1%Indiana 73.1% 22.4%Iowa 75.3% 25.0%Kansas 78.9% 32.8%Kentucky 68.9% 20.8%Louisiana 67.7% 21.2%Maine 71.4% 24.9%Maryland 75.0% 36.8%Massachusetts 73.7% 40.5%Michigan 72.8% 26.7%Minnesota 80.3% 34.6%Mississippi 68.4% 19.9%Missouri 74.1% 27.9%Montana 71.2% 26.0%Nebraska 80.7% 25.9%Nevada 74.2% 24.3%New Hampshire 77.9% 28.2%New Jersey 74.0% 31.5%New Mexico 69.9% 35.1%New York 70.3% 37.6%North Carolina 73.6% 25.2%North Dakota 77.1% 26.6%Ohio 73.5% 24.6%Oklahoma 71.3% 24.9%Oregon 73.5% 28.6%Pennsylvania 71.6% 27.5%Rhode Island 71.5% 29.1%South Carolina 71.2% 24.3%South Dakota 78.1% 25.5%Tennessee 69.9% 23.6%Texas 76.4% 26.7%Utah 79.5% 32.2%Vermont 75.9% 32.8%Virginia 74.3% 33.3%Washington 74.7% 33.6%West Virginia 60.8% 15.6%Wisconsin 77.2% 25.9%Wyoming 77.3% 22.0%National 71.8% 29.1%See Appendix I for Methodology.Appendix IV. Basic Demographic Statistics for Ohio and the UnitedStates OhioTotal Population, 2005 (a) 11,155,606Number of Women, All Ages, 2005 (b) 5,732,190Sex Ratio (women to men, aged 18 and older), 2005 (b) 1.06Median Age, 2005 (c) 39Proportion of Women Over Age 65, 2005 (b) 14.5%Distribution of Women by Race and Ethnicity, All Ages, 2005 (d)White, Non-Hispanic 82.8%Black or African American 11.9%American Indian and Alaska Native N/AAsian American alone 1.4%Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander N/ASome other race N/ATwo or more races 1.4%Hispanic 2.1%Distribution of Households by Type, 2005 (e)Total Number of Family and Nonfamily Households 4,507,821Married-Couple Families (with and without 49.4% their own children)Female-Headed Familes (with and without their own children) 12.7%Male-Headed Families (with and without their own children) 4.1%Nonfamily Households 33.7%Distribution of Women Aged 15 and Older by Marital Status, 2005 (f)Never married 24.5%Now married 53.1%Separated 2.0%Other 1.2%Widowed 10.1%Divorced 12.2%Number of Lesbian Unmarried Partner Households, 2000 (g) 9,671Proportion of Women Aged 21-64 with a Disability, 2005 (h) 14.1%Percent of Families with Children Under Age 18 Headed 25.4% by Women, 2005 (i)Proportion of Women Living in Metropolitan Areas, 80.8% All Ages, 2000 (j)Proportion of Women Who Are Foreign-Born, All Ages, 3.4% 2005 (k)Percent of Federal and State Prision Population Who N/A Are Women, 2005 (l) United StatesTotal Population, 2005 (a) 288,378,137Number of Women, All Ages, 2005 (b) 147,103,179Sex Ratio (women to men, aged 18 and older), 2005 (b) 1.04Median Age, 2005 (c) 37.6Proportion of Women Over Age 65, 2005 (b) 13.5%Distribution of Women by Race and Ethnicity, All Ages, 2005 (d)White, Non-Hispanic 66.8%Black or African American 12.5%American Indian and Alaska Native 0.7%Asian American alone 4.3%Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander 0.1%Some other race 0.3%Two or more races 1.4%Hispanic 13.9%Distribution of Households by Type, 2005 (e)Total Number of Family and Nonfamily Households 111,090,617Married-Couple Families (with and without 49.7% their own children)Female-Headed Familes (with and without their own children) 12.6%Male-Headed Families (with and without their own children) 4.6%Nonfamily Households 33.1%Distribution of Women Aged 15 and Older by Marital Status, 2005 (f)Never married 25.5%Now married 53.6%Separated 2.6%Other 2.0%Widowed 9.4%Divorced 11.5%Number of Lesbian Unmarried Partner Households, 2000 (g) 293,365Proportion of Women Aged 21-64 with a Disability, 2005 (h) 12.9%Percent of Families with Children Under Age 18 Headed 24.5% by Women, 2005 (i)Proportion of Women Living in Metropolitan Areas, 82.8% All Ages, 2000 (j)Proportion of Women Who Are Foreign-Born, All Ages, 12.1% 2005 (k)Percent of Federal and State Prision Population Who 7.0% Are Women, 2005 (l)Notes: Hispanics may be of any race or two or more races. Racialcategories (Whites, African Americans, Asian Americans, NativeAmericans, Some other race, and Two or more races) do notinclude Hispanics.Source: a) U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census 2006j; b)U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census 2006k; c) U.S.Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census 2006l; d) U.S. Departmentof Commerce, Bureau of the Census 2006m; e) U.S. Department ofCommerce, Bureau of the Census 2006n; f) U.S. Department of Commerce,Bureau of the Census 2006o; g) U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureauof the Census 2000; h) U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of theCensus 2006p; i) U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census2006q; j) Population Reference Bureau 2000; k) U.S. Department ofCommerce, Bureau of the Census 2006r; l) U.S. Department of Justice,Bureau of Justice Statistics 2006.Compiled by the Institute for Women's Policy Research. References Caiazza, Amy, April Shaw, and Misha Werschkul. 2004. Women'sEconomic Status in the States: Wide Disparities by Race, Ethnicity, andRegion. Washington, DC: Institute for Women's Policy Research. Cancian, Maria, Sheldon See also: SheltonSheldon may refer to: Placesin the USA: Sheldon, Iowa Sheldon, Texas Sheldon, New York Sheldon, Monroe County, Wisconsin Sheldon, Vermont Sheldon, North Dakota Danziger, and Peter Gottschalk. 1993."Working Wives and Family Income Inequality inequality,in mathematics, statement that a mathematical expression is less than or greater than some other expression; an inequality is not as specific as an equation, but it does contain information about the expressions involved. Among MarriedCouples." In Uneven Tides: Rising Inequality in America America[for Amerigo Vespucci], the lands of the Western Hemisphere—North America, Central (or Middle) America, and South America. The world map published in 1507 by Martin Waldseemüller is the first known cartographic use of the name. , SheldonDanziger and Peter Gottschalk (eds). New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of : Russell Sage Russell Sage (4 August 1816 - 22 July 1906) was a financier and politician from New York.Sage was born at Verona in Oneida County, New York. He received a public school education and worked as a farm hand until he was 15, when he became an errand boy in a grocery conducted Foundation. Cattan, Peter. 1998. "The Effect of Working Wives on theIncidence of Poverty." Monthly Labor Review The Monthly Labor Review is a publication by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Monthly publications are usually published by topic. Researchers outside of the BLS are welcome to submit their articles. External linksThe Monthly Labor Review http://www.bls. , March, 22. Community Research Partners. 2004. Average Isn't Enough:Advancing Working Families to Create an Outstanding Ohio.<http://communityresearchpartners.org/uploads/publications//smlAverageIsntEnoughFinal.pdf>. Cotter, David A., Joan Joanof Arc, St. (1412–1431) heroically followed call to save France. [Christian Hagiog.: Attwater, 187]See : Patriotism M. Hermsen, and Reeve REEVE. The name of an ancient English officer of justice, inferior in rank to an alderman. 2. He was a ministerial officer, appointed to execute process, keep the king's peace, and put the laws in execution. Vanneman. 2004. GenderInequality at Work. New York: Russell Sage Foundation and PopulationReference Bureau The Population Reference Bureau is a non-governmental organization in the United States, founded in 1929 by Guy Irving Burch, with support of Raymond Pearl. It provides information about demography. . <http://www.bsos.umd.edu/socy/vanneman/papers/Cotter_etal See et al. .pdf> (November November:see month. 2006). Grant, Alison Alisonbetrays old husband amusingly with her lodger, Nicholas. [Br. Lit.: Canterbury Tales, “Miller’s Tale”]See : Adultery . 2006. "Minimum Wage Hike Kicks in Monday Monday:see week. ."Cleveland Cleveland, former county, EnglandCleveland,former county, NE England, created under the Local Government Act of 1972 (effective 1974). It was composed of the county boroughs of Hartlepool and Teeside and parts of the former counties of Durham and Plain Dealer. (December December:see month. ) <http://www.cleveland.com/search/index.ssf?/base/business/1167558157243720.xml?bxbiz&coll=2> (January January:see month. 2007). Institute for Women's Policy Research. 2006a. Unpublishedcalculations based on the Historical Income Tables published by the U.S.Bureau of the Census (2006a). Institute for Women's Policy Research. 2006b. Unpublishedcalculations of the 2004 to 2006 Current Population Survey Annual Socialand Economic Supplement for calendar years 2003 to 2005. Institute for Women's Policy Research. 2003. Single Mothersand Their Children Suffered Most in the Last Year with Persistently per��sis��tent?adj.1. Refusing to give up or let go; persevering obstinately.2. Insistently repetitive or continuous: a persistent ringing of the telephone.3. HighPoverty; Gender Wage Gap Stagnant stagnant/stag��nant/ (stag��nant)1. motionless; not flowing or moving.2. inactive; not developing or progressing. . Press Release, September September:see month. 26.Washington, DC: Institute for Women's Policy Research. Lee, Sunhwa. 2004. Women's Work Supports, Job Retention, andJob Mobility: Child Care and Employer-Provided Health Insurance HelpWomen Stay on Jobs. Washington, DC: Institute for Women's PolicyResearch. McCrate, Elaine Elaine,in Arthurian legend: see Launcelot, Sir. Elainedisguises herself as Guinevere in order to seduce Lancelot. [Br. Lit.: Malory Le Mort d’Arthur]See : DisguiseElaine . 2002. Working Mothers in a Double Bind double bindn.1. A psychological impasse created when contradictory demands are made of an individual, such as a child or an employee, so that no matter which directive is followed, the response will be construed as incorrect.2. : WorkingMoms, Minorities Have the Most Rigid This article is about mathematics. For the materials sense, see Stiffness. In mathematics, suppose C is a collection of mathematical objects (for instance sets or functions). Schedules, and Are Paid Less forthe Sacrifice sacrifice[Lat. sacrificare=to make holy], a type of religious offering, or gift to a superior or supreme being, in which the offering is consecrated through its destruction. . Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute. Mishel, Lawrence Lawrence.1 City (1990 pop. 26,763), Marion co., central Ind., a residential suburb of Indianapolis, on the West Fork of the White River. It has light manufacturing.2 City (1990 pop. 65,608), seat of Douglas co., NE Kans. , Jared Jared(jâr`ĭd), in the Bible, father of Enoch. It is also spelled Jered. Bernstein, and Heather Boushey Heather Boushey (born 1970, Seattle) is a senior economist with the Center for Economic and Policy Research. Her work focuses on the U.S. labor market, social policy, and work and family issues. Dr. Boushey’s work ranges from examinations of current trends in the U.S. . 2003. TheState of Working America Working America is an allied organization of the AFL-CIO which works to build alliances among non-union working people. Working America is a nonpartisan, non-profit organization which provides workers who are not union members input into the policies, goals, and legislative 2002/2003. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Cornell University,mainly at Ithaca, N.Y.; with land-grant, state, and private support; coeducational; chartered 1865, opened 1868. It was named for Ezra Cornell, who donated $500,000 and a tract of land. With the help of state senator Andrew D. Press. National Women's Law Center. 2006. "Ohio's TaxAssistance For Child And Dependent Care Expenses Improves Over Four-YearPeriod: State Improves From C+ to B in NWLC NWLC National Women's Law CenterNWLC Northwest Women's Law Center State-By-State ReportCard." <http://www.nwlc.org/details.cfm?id=2718&section=newsroom> (January 2007). Population Reference Bureau. 2000. United States Data Finder.<http://www.prb.org/datafind/prjprbdata/wcprbdata7.asp?DW=DF&SL=&SA=2> (December 2006). Spalter-Roth, Roberta, Heidi Heidihas instinct for goodness. [Children’s Lit.: Heidi]See : Innocence Hartmann, and Linda M. Andrews. 1990.Mothers, Children, and Low-Wage Work: The Ability to Earn a Family Wage.Washington, DC: Institute for Women's Policy Research. The Women's Fund of the Greater Cincinnati Foundation. 2005. AStudy on the Status of Women and Girls in Greater Cincinnati.<http://www.greatercincinnatifdn.org/ page24762.cfm> (January2007). U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 2006a."Table P 38. Full-Time, Year-Round All Workers by Median Earningsand Sex: 1960 to 2005 (Selected Years)." Current Population Survey.<http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/ income/histinc/p38ar.html>(November 2006). U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 2006b."Women-Owned Firms: 2002." 2002 Economic Census, Survey ofBusiness Owners, Company Statistics Series.<http://www.census.gov/prod/ec02/sb0200cswmn.pdf> (August 2006). U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 2006c."Table B20017. Median earnings in the past 12 months (in 2005inflation-adjusted dollars) by sex by work experience in the past 12months for the population 16 years and over with earnings in the past 12months." 2005 American Community Survey.<http://factfinder.census.gov> (October October:see month. 2006). U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 2006d."Table B23001. Sex by age by employment status for the population16 years and over." 2005 American Community Survey.<http://factfinder.census.gov> (October 2006). U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 2006e."Table C24010. Sex by occupation for the civilian employedpopulation 16 years and over." 2005 American Community Survey.<http://factfinder.census.gov> (October 2006). U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 2006f."Table B15002. Sex by educational attainment for the population 25years and over." 2005 American Community Survey.<http://factfinder.census.gov> (October 2006). U.S. Department ofCommerce, Bureau of the Census. 2006g. "Table B17001. Povertystatus in the past 12 months by sex by age." 2005 AmericanCommunity Survey. <http://factfinder. census.gov> (October 2006). U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 2006h."Table A-2. Percent of People 25 Years and Over Who Have CompletedHigh School or College, by Race, Hispanic Origin and Sex: Selected Years1940 to 2005." Current Population Survey.<http://www.census.gov/population/socdemo/education/cps2005/tabA-2.xls> (December 2006). U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 2006i. PovertyThresholds by Size of Family and Number of Children: 2004 and 2005.<http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty/threshld.html> (December2006). U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 2006j."Table B0100. Total Population." 2005 American CommunitySurvey. <http://factfinder.census.gov> (December 2006). U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 2006k."Table B01001. Sex by Age." 2005 American Community Survey.<http://factfinder.census.gov> (December 2006). U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 2006l."Table B01002. Median Age by Sex." 2005 American CommunitySurvey. <http://factfinder.census.gov> (December 2006). U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 2006m."Table S0201. Selected Population Profile in the UnitedStates." 2005 American Community Survey. <http://factfinder.census.gov> (December 2006). U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 2006n."TableB11011. Household Type by Units in Structure." 2005American Community Survey. <http://factfinder.census.gov>(December 2006). U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 2006o."Table B1200. Sex by Marital Status marital status,n the legal standing of a person in regard to his or her marriage state. for the Population 15 Years andOlder." 2005 American Community Survey. <http://factfinder.census.gov> (December 2006). U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 2006p."Table B18002. Sex by Age by Disability Status for the CivilianNoninstitutionalized Population 5 Years and Older." 2005 AmericanCommunity Survey. <http://factfinder.census. gov> (December 2006). U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 2006q."Table B09001. Population Under 18 Years in Households by HouseholdType and Age of Children in Households." 2005 American CommunitySurvey. <http://factfinder.census.gov> (December 2006). U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 2006r."Table B05003. Sex by Age by Citizenship Status." 2005American Community Survey. <http://factfinder.census.gov>(December 2006). U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 2000.Unmarried-Partner Households by Sex of Partners. <http://factfinder.census.gov> (December 2006). U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics Noun 1. Bureau of Justice Statistics - the agency in the Department of Justice that is the primary source of criminal justice statistics for federal and local policy makersBJS . 2006."Prisoners in 2005." Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin No.NCJ-215092. <http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/p05.pdf>(December 2006). U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2006a."Employment status of the civilian noninstitutional adj. 1. not institutional. Opposite of institutional nt>.Adj. 1. noninstitutional - not institutionalinstitutional - organized as or forming an institution; "institutional religion" population bysex, race, Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, marital status, and detailedage, 2004 annual averages." Geographic geographic/geo��graph��ic/ (je?o-graf��ik) in pathology, of or referring to a pattern that is well demarcated, resembling outlines on a map. geographicpertaining to geography. Profile of Employment andUnemployment. <http://www.bls.gov/lau/ table14full04.pdf>(November 2006). U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2006b.Highlights of Women's Earnings in 2005. <http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpswom2005.pdf> (December 2006). U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2004."Table 15. States: Percent distribution of employed persons by sex,race, Hispanic origin, and occupation, 2002 annual averages."Geographic Profile of Employment and Unemployment.<http://www.bls.gov/opub/gp/pdf/gp02_ 15.pdf> (October 2006). U.S. General Accounting Office. 2003. Women's Earnings: WorkPatterns Partially Explain Difference between Men's andWomen's Earnings. Report GAO-04-35. Washington, DC: U.S. GeneralAccounting Office. Wider Opportunities for Women. 2003. Setting the Standard forAmerican Working Families: A Report on the Impact of the Family EconomicSelf-Sufficiency Project Nationwide. Washington, DC: Wider Opportunitiesfor Women. Winkler, Anne Anne, British princessAnne(Anne Elizabeth Alice Louise), 1950–, British princess, only daughter of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, duke of Edinburgh. She was educated at Benenden School. E. 1998. "Earnings of Husbands and Wives inDual-Earner Families." Monthly Labor Review, April, p.42. (1) This figure was calculated by taking the average yearly percentchange in the wage ratio between 1995 and 2005 and calculating how manyyears it would take for that percent change to bring the ratio to 100percent (Institute for Women's Policy Research 2006a). (2) Data used to rank and grade the states for women'searnings and the wage ratio, health insurance coverage, educationalattainment, and poverty levels come from IWPR tabulations of the CurrentPopulation Survey (CPS) of the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Inorder to have a large enough sample size to allow for cross-statecomparisons with the CPS, IWPR merged three years of survey datareferencing the years 2003-2005. Data used to rank and grade the statesfor women's labor force participation and women in managerial andprofessional occupations come from the BLS' 2004 and 2002Geographic Profile of Employment and Unemployment. Data for women'sbusiness ownership come from the Census Bureau's 2002 EconomicCensus. See Appendix I for more on data sources and methodology. (3) With the exception of data on health insurance coverage, datadisaggregated by race and ethnicity come from the Census Bureau'sAmerican Community Survey. These data differ from the data used to rankand grade the states, which comes largely from the Current PopulationSurvey. They are also not comparable with the 2000 Census data used forracial and ethnic breakdowns in IWPR's 2004 Status of Women in theStates reports. The data disaggregated by race and ethnicity for healthinsurance coverage are from the Current Population Survey, and aretherefore directly comparable to the health insurance data for all womenand men used to rank and grade the states. For more on sources andmethodology, see Appendix II. (4) The Federal Poverty Threshold for a family of four (with twochildren) in 2005 (2005 dollars) was $19,806 (U.S. Department ofCommerce, Bureau of the Census 2006i). Women in Ohio: What's Promising? * Ohio ranks in the top third of all states on two indicators ofwomen's economic status: women with health insurance andwomen-owned businesses. * Ohio ranks second of five states in the East North Central regionfor the state's composite employment and earnings score, for theratio of women's to men's median annual earnings, and for thepercent of women above poverty. * Women of color in Ohio of all races and ethnicities are morelikely to have health insurance than their national counterparts. * The state's Hispanic women earn more than Hispanic womennationally. Women in Ohio: What's Disappointing? * Ohio ranks in the bottom half of states on four indicators:women's labor force participation (26th), the wage ratio (30th),women in managerial and professional occupations (34th), andwomen's educational attainment (39th). * African American women in Ohio are far less likely to hold atleast a four-year college degree or to live above poverty than otherwomen in the state. * Hispanic women are far less likely to have health insurance thanother women in the state. By Erica Williams and Olga Sorokina, Institute for Women'sPolicy Research In partnership with The Women's Fund of CentralOhio, The Women's Fund of The Greater Cincinnati Foundation, TheWomen's Endowment Fund Noun 1. endowment fund - the capital that provides income for an institutionendowmentpatrimony - a church endowmentchantry - an endowment for the singing of Masses of the Akron Akron(ăk`rən), city (1990 pop. 223,019), seat of Summit co., NE Ohio, on the Little Cuyahoga River; inc. 1865. Once the heart of the nation's rubber industry, Akron still contains the headquarters of some rubber corporations and chemical and Community Foundation, and theInstitute on Women, Gender, and Public Policy at The Ohio StateUniversity Ohio State University,main campus at Columbus; land-grant and state supported; coeducational; chartered 1870, opened 1873 as Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College, renamed 1878. There are also campuses at Lima, Mansfield, Marion, and Newark. Table 1. Overview of the Economic Status of Women in Ohio National Regional Grade Rank * Rank *Composite Employment and Earnings 25 2 CWomen's Median Annual Earnings, 19 32005 (a) ($31,800)Ratio of Women's to Men's Earnings, 30 22005 (a) (74.8%)Labor Force Participation, 26 32004 (b) (60.4%)Percent in Managerial/Professional 34 3Occupations, 2002 (c) (31.8%)Composite Social and Economic 29 4 C-Autonomy IndexPercent of Women with Health Insurance, 17 32005 (a) (85.9%)Percent of Women 25 and Older with aFour-Year College Degree or More, 39 42005 (a) (22.7%)Women-Owned Businesses, 2002d (28.1%) 17 3Percent of Women Above the Poverty Line, 19 22005a (88.5%)Notes: * The national rankings are of a possible 51, referring to the50 states and the District of Columbia. The regional rankings are amaximum of 5 and refer to the states in the East North Central region(IL, IN, MI, OH, and WI).Source: a) Institute for Women's Policy Research 2006b; b) U.S.Department of Labor, Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics 2004; d) U.S.Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census 2006b.Calculated by the Institute for Women's Policy Research.Table 2. Overview of the Status of Women of Color in OhioAmerican Community Survey Data All Women White, Non- African Hispanic American Women WomenEmployment and EarningsMedian Annual Earnings (for full-time, year-round employed women), $31,500 $31,800 $28,8002005 (a)Earnings Ratio Between Womenand White Men, 2005 (a) 72.7% 73.4% 66.5%Women's Labor Force Participation,2005 (b) 59.9% 59.8% 61.6%Women in Managerial andProfessional Occupations, 2005 (c) 35.3% 35.9% 29.6%Social and Economic AutonomyPercent of Women with a CollegeEducation, 2005 (d) 22.1% 22.8% 14.3%Percent of Women Above thePoverty Level, 2005 (e) 86.9% 89.3% 71.4%Percent of Women with HealthInsurance, 2005 (f) 85.9% 87.2% 80.3% Asian Native American American Hispanic Women Women WomenEmployment and EarningsMedian Annual Earnings (for full-time, year-round employed women), $35,900 N/A $27,0002005 (a)Earnings Ratio Between Womenand White Men, 2005 (a) 82.9% N/A 62.4%Women's Labor Force Participation,2005 (b) 55.3% N/A 58.6%Women in Managerial andProfessional Occupations, 2005 (c) 52.8% N/A N/ASocial and Economic AutonomyPercent of Women with a CollegeEducation, 2005 (d) 55.3% N/A N/APercent of Women Above thePoverty Level, 2005 (e) 87.8% 73.9% 76.3%Percent of Women with HealthInsurance, 2005 (f) 88.0% N/A 69.0%Notes: N/A = Not Available.Hispanics may be of any race or two or more races. Racial categories(Whites, African Americans, Asian Americans, and Native Americans) donot include Hispanics.Data for women-owned businesses are not available by raceand ethnicity.Source: a) U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census 2006c;b) U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census 2006d; c) U.S.Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census 2006e; d) U.S. Departmentof Commerce, Bureau of the Census 2006f; e) U.S. Department ofCommerce, Bureau of the Census 2006g; f) Institute for Women'sPolicy Research 2006b.Compiled by the Institute for Women's Policy Research.Figure 1. Women's Median Annual Earnings for Full-Time/Year-Round Workin Ohio, by Race and Ethnicity, 2005, American Community Survey Ohio United StatesAll Women $31,500 $32,200White, Non-Hispanic $31,800 $34,200AsianAmerican $35,900 $36,515AfricanAmerican $28,800 $29,600NativeAmerican N/A $27,977Hispanic $27,000 $24,500Notes: N/A=Not available.Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census 2006c.Compiled by the Institute for Women's Policy Research.Note: Table made from bar graph.Figure 2. Ratio of Women's to Men's Full-Time/Year-Round Median AnnualEarnings in the East North Central Region, 2005, Current PopulationSurveyOH 74.8%IL 76.1%IN 72.6%MI 69.8%WI 72.9%US 77.0%States in the East North Central RegionSource: Institute for Women's Policy Research 2006b.Calculated by the Institute for Women's Policy Research.Note: Table made from bar graph.Figure 3. Percent of Women in Professional and Managerial Occupationsin Ohio and the United States by Race and Ethnicity, 2005, AmericanCommunity Survey Ohio United StatesAll Women 35.3% 37.3%White 35.9% 40.4%AfricanAmerican 29.6% 30.6%Asian American 52.8% 44.5%Native American N/A 31.6%Hispanic N/A 22.6%Notes: N/A=Not available.Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census 2006e.Compiled by the Institute for Women's Policy Research.Note: Table made from bar graph.Figure 4. Percent of Women 18 to 64 With Health Insurance in Ohio andthe United States, by Race and Ethnicity, 2005, Current PopulationSurvey Ohio United StatesAll Women 85.9% 81.4%White, Non-Hispanic 87.2% 86.1%African American 80.3% 77.3%Asian American 88.0% 79.2%Native American N/A 66.8%Hispanic 69.0% 62.5%Notes: N/A=Not available.Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census 2006b.Calculated by the Institute for Women's Policy Research.Note: Table made from bar graph.Figure 5. Percent of Women Aged 25 and Older with a Four-Year CollegeDegree or More in Ohio and the United States, by Race and Ethnicity,2005, American Community Survey Ohio United StatesAll Women 22.1% 26.0%White 22.8% 28.3%African American 14.3% 17.8%Asian American 55.3% 44.8%Native American N/A 13.7%Hispanic N/A 12.7%Notes: N/A=Not available.Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census 2006f.Compiled by the Institute for Women's Policy Research.Note: Table made from bar graph.Figure 6. Percent of Women Aged 16 and Older Living Above the FederalPoverty Line in Ohio and the United States, by Race and Ethnicity,2005, American Community Survey Ohio United StatesAll Women 86.9% 86.4%White, Non-Hispanic 89.3% 90.0%African American 71.4% 75.1%Asian American 87.8% 88.3%Native American 73.9% 74.7%Hispanic 76.3% 77.3%Notes: N/A=Not available.Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census 2006f.Compiled by the Institute for Women's Policy Research.Note: Table made from bar graph.