Wednesday, September 28, 2011

Subpolar settlement in South Polynesia.

Subpolar settlement in South Polynesia. Introduction The probable extent of Polynesian migration in prehistory prehistory,period of human evolution before writing was invented and records kept. The term was coined by Daniel Wilson in 1851. It is followed by protohistory, the period for which we have some records but must still rely largely on archaeological evidence to reacheswell beyond the conventional 'Polynesian Triangle', with itsvertices at Hawai'i, mainland New Zealand New Zealand(zē`lənd), island country (2005 est. pop. 4,035,000), 104,454 sq mi (270,534 sq km), in the S Pacific Ocean, over 1,000 mi (1,600 km) SE of Australia. The capital is Wellington; the largest city and leading port is Auckland. and Easter Island. To thewest of it, there were Polynesian outliers in Melanesia and a villagesite on Norfolk Island (Anderson & White 2001). Circular shellfish-hooks and associated subsistence changes along the east coast ofAustralia in contexts dating 1500-500 BP, together with the recoverythere of stone adzes of Polynesian type (Thorpe 1929), have attractedconjecture about Oceanic influences (O'Connor & Chappell 2003).Similarly, the first-millennium AD appearance of planked canoes, andearlier of circular shell fish-hooks, in California and northern Chilehas been associated with Polynesian or Oceanic influences (Heizer 1949;Heyerdahl 1952: 697-705), although American development of each is nowargued respectively by Gamble (2002) and Rick et al. (2002). Furthersouth, prehistoric colonisation seems to have been absent on the JuanFernandez Islands Juan Fer��n��n��dez Islands?An island group belonging to Chile, in the southeast Pacific Ocean west of Valpara��so, Chile. Alexander Selkirk, a Scottish sailor and the inspiration for Defoe's Robinson Crusoe, lived on one of the islands from 1704 to 1709. (Anderson et al. 2002), but Amerindian architecturaltraits (Martinsson-Wallin 1994) and cultigens on Easter Island are heldby Green (1998) to reflect substantial Polynesian voyaging along thecoast of South America, and Ramirez-Aliaga (1992) has collated datasuggestive of suggestive ofDecision making adjective Referring to a pattern by LM or imaging, that the interpreter associates with a particular–usually malignant lesion. See Aunt Millie approach, Defensive medicine. Polynesian contact with south-central Chile. Two expeditions beyond the southern angle of the PolynesianTriangle have sought to elucidate the subpolar extent of Polynesianmigration. The first expedition, to the Snares and Auckland Islands in1998 (Figure 1), suggested that there had been prehistoric settlement onboth (Anderson & O'Regan 2000), but key elements of the dataremained uncertain. No artefacts were recovered in culturalstratigraphy stratigraphy,branch of geology specifically concerned with the arrangement of layered rocks (see stratification). Stratigraphy is based on the law of superposition, which states that in a normal sequence of rock layers the youngest is on top and the oldest on the , sparse shell and fishbone could have originated in sealscats, and questions remained about the extent of in-built age inradiocarbon-dated charcoal samples. A second expedition in 2003 setsthose concerns to rest (Anderson 2003a). There is now unambiguousevidence of a thirteenth-fourteenth-century AD settlement on theAuckland Islands. The new data provide the first evidence ofpre-European settlement on outlying islands in the Subantarctic zone(the other groups are Falklands and Gough Islands in the South Atlantic,Crozet and Prince Edward Islands in the South Indian Ocean and Bounty,Antipodes and Campbell Islands in the South Pacific). These results alsocomplete a survey of the colonisation prehistory of the outlyingarchipelagos of South Polynesia (those lying at 500-800km aroundmainland New Zealand) and enable a review of some characteristics ofthat phase. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] Auckland Islands archaeology The Subantarctic islands lie between the sub-tropical and Antarcticconvergence zones. Locations of these vary seasonally, but south ofmainland New Zealand their mean positions are at about 47[degrees]S and57[degrees]S, respectively. For this and other reasons outlined byAnderson (1981), Foveaux Strait and the Chathams, identified by Suttonand Marshall (1980) as 'Subantarctic', are not in factsubpolar. The largest subpolar archipelago (626[km.sup.2]) is theAuckland Islands, rising to about 650m asl, at 50[degrees]S. Cloudy (900hours sunshine per annum Per annumYearly. ), cool (mean annual temperature of 8[degrees]C)and humid (100-150cm annual precipitation), they support a narrow fringeof coastal forest and abundant marine life (Department of Conservation1997). The expedition in 2003 surveyed most of the east and north coastinlets and islands for signs of Polynesian occupation (the west andsouth coasts are cliffs up to 600m high). Shell and bird-bone depositsoccurred in the only substantial cave encountered, at Tagua Bay, CarnleyHarbour, but excavation showed them to be of natural origin and theywere dated to 2555 [+ or -] 39 BP (Wk-13430). The other area was atSandy Bay, Enderby Island. A boulder beach ridge there reaches about2.0m above mean HTM HTM HyperText Markup (file extension)HTM Hand To MouthHTM harmful-to-minorsHTM Held-to-MaturityHTM High Tide MarkHTM Hazlo t�� mismo (Spanish: do it yourself)HTM Hierarchical Temporal Memory , and it is overlain o��ver��lain?v.Past participle of overlie. by a 470m-long foredune up to1.2m deep, the only substantial area of sand dunes in the archipelago.The dune contains discrete deposits of blackened sand and cultural itemswhich occur as a single layer, generally 0.25m thick, but up to 0.5m,enclosed by lower and upper palaeosols (Figure 2). The lower of thesehas a maximum age of about 2800 BP (McFadgen & Yaldwyn 1984), andthe upper palaeosol, formed after abandonment of prehistoric occupationbut before nineteenth-century deforestation deforestationProcess of clearing forests. Rates of deforestation are particularly high in the tropics, where the poor quality of the soil has led to the practice of routine clear-cutting to make new soil available for agricultural use. and the introduction ofdomestic stock and rabbits, led to partial remobilisation of the dunes.That process allowed deposition of bottle glass and fragments of claytobacco pipes on exposed parts of the prehistoric layer (Anderson2003a). [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] Excavation of 5.0[m.sup.2] site at area X (Figure 1) disclosed aPolynesian earth oven, 2m in diameter, containing basalt cobbles cob��ble?1?n.1. A cobblestone.2. Geology A rock fragment between 64 and 256 millimeters in diameter, especially one that has been naturally rounded.3. cobbles See cob coal.tr. ,charcoal and abundant midden middendungheap. of mussel mussel,edible freshwater or marine bivalve mollusk. Mussels are able to move slowly by means of the muscular foot. They feed and breathe by filtering water through extensible tubes called siphons; a large mussel filters 10 gal (38 liters) of water per day. shell, and sea lion and birdbone. Midden was sparse nearby, but flakes and cores of chert chert:see flint. and basaltwere relatively numerous, suggesting an adjacent processing area.Material from the cultural layer was screened to 3mm where the matrixwas sandy, but where it was sticky clay-loam, which resisted watersieving, the material was spread out on plastic sheets and pickedthrough carefully by hand. Test pits showed that this site represents a single phase ofoccupation on an area of 70-100[m.sup.2]. A similar site of comparablesize and contents is largely eroded out at area S, 180m to the east. Anuneroded midden there, S5, was test excavated (0.5[m.sup.2]) and thedeflated area around it shows that the site comprised a cluster of atleast seven ovens and associated middens and flake tools. On itsperiphery were the oven (area C) and midden scatter (area A),investigated in 1998 (Anderson & O'Regan 2000). Combined, areas A, C, S and X extend over about 250[m.sup.2].Systematic coring and spade pits along the entire foredune revealed noother cultural deposits of prehistoric provenance. It is possible thatan originally extensive site has been largely lost by water, wind andbioerosion, but as the distribution of flaked chert in deflated duneswales along the foredune correlates closely with the location of thepresent prehistoric deposits, it is more probable that prehistoricoccupation was limited and brief. Chronology Potential sources of error in radiocarbon dating include in-builtage in charcoal samples, most of them of long-lived rata (Metrosiderosumbellata); storage age from the use of driftwood and reservoir age forshell and bone from marine-feeding birds. To minimise these problems,multiple provenances were dated on diverse sample materials (Table 1).With the exception of one unidentified sample (ANU-12038), all datedcharcoals were identified to taxa. Seven samples were of small-diameterinanga (Dracophyllum longifolium), which should be of short to mediumlifespan, generally 50-80 years but possibly up to 220 years (Anderson& O'Regan 2000). Two samples also included Coprosma c.f.foetidissima (Wk-13652) and rata (ANU-11238), and one was exclusively ofrata (ANU-11236A). Four shell samples were of southern blue mussel (Mytilus edulisgalliprovincialis), which contains outer layers of calcite calcite(kăl`sīt), very widely distributed mineral, commonly white or colorless, but appearing in a great variety of colors owing to impurities. that wereground off. Duplicate samples for Wk-13428 and Wk-13429 were tested forreproducibility and the results were within errors. Three samples wereof ribbed mussel (Aulacomya atra maoriana), exclusively aragonite aragoniteA carbonate mineral, the stable form of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) at high pressures. It is somewhat harder and has a slightly higher specific gravity than calcite. . Twosamples of sooty soot��y?adj. soot��i��er, soot��i��est1. Covered with or as if with soot.2. Blackish or dusky in color.3. Of or producing soot. sheatwater (Puffinus griseus) bone gelatine were alsodated, and bone and shell conventional ages were corrected for themarine reservoir effect (OxCal v. 3.8, Bronk Ramsey 2001) using theChatham Islands offset value of 140 [+ or -] 80 radiocarbon years(Waikato Radiocarbon Laboratory unpublished data). The distribution of radiocarbon ages by site area (Figure 3) showsthat areas A, C and S date entirely to an early occupation. In area X,there is a chronological difference between spit 1, which was onlypartially covered by the upper palaeosol, and spits 2-5 beneath. Shellsamples in spit 1 date to the period of historical occupation of SandyBay, also represented by the midden in area Y. However, the radiocarbondates from lower levels in area X indicate prehistoric occupation,contemporary with that in areas A, C and S during the early thirteenthto fourteenth centuries. [FIGURE 3 OMITTED] Artefactual adj. 1. of or pertaining to an artefact.2. made by human actions.Adj. 1. artefactual - of or relating to artifactsartifactual and faunal remains Artefacts from within prehistoric cultural levels included largebasalt flakes of a form consistent with adze adze,tool similar in purpose and use to an axe but with the cutting edge at right angles to the handle rather than aligned with it. The details of construction of a particular adze will depend on its intended application. preform pre��form?tr.v. pre��formed, pre��form��ing, pre��forms1. To shape or form beforehand.2. To determine the shape or form of beforehand.n.1. trimming, althoughneither preforms nor finished adzes have been found. More abundant areflakes and scrapers of a hydrothermal hydrothermal, hydrothermicrelating to the temperature effects of water, as in hot baths. laminated chert which has beenbroken out of cobbles (Figure 4a and 4b). The basalt is identical tolocal material in hand specimen, and the source of the chert probablylies amongst the layers of indurated argillites and clays which occurbetween basalt flows near Sandy Bay. [FIGURE 4 OMITTED] Shell midden consisted mainly of southern blue mussel, ribbedmussel and the limpet limpet,marine gastropod mollusk with a simple, flattened, conical shell, found in cooler waters of the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. Certain species creep over rocks, feeding on algae during high tides, but when the tide recedes they return instinctively to the , Cellana strigilis strigilis. The virtual absenceof softshore or low-tidal species such as paua pauaNounan edible shellfish of New Zealand, which has a pearly shell used for jewellery [Maori] (Haliotis virgineahuttoni) suggests a focus on the rocky mid-shore. The most abundantinshore in��shore?adv. & adj.1. Close to a shore.2. Toward or coming toward a shore.inshoreAdjectivein or on the water, but close to the shore: fish locally are the Ice-cods, Paranotothenia spp. (Kingsford etal. 1989). Six P. microlepidota are represented in spit 1, area X, alongwith four conger eels, probably Conger verreauxi. However, this materialis probably of historical age (above). In the lower spits, there is onlyone identified individual of fish (P. microlepidota) and another at areaS, so fishing may have been relatively unimportant prehistorically. The Sandy Bay prehistoric assemblages include 124 birds, by MNI See Merom New Instructions. , ofwhich the top five taxa (MNI, per cent) are white-chinned petrel,Procellaria aequinoctinialis (28, 23), sooty shearwater, Puffinusgriseus (26, 21), Auckland Island shag shagsee cormorant. , Leucocarbo colensoi (19, 15),southern royal albatross, Diornedea epomophora (12, 10), and yellow-eyedpenguin, Megadyptes antipodes (9, 7.3). As in the fish, there is asubstantial difference between taxa in assemblages of different age. Themain taxa in spit 1, area X, are white-chinned petrel (19, 31), AucklandIsland shag (17, 28), sooty shearwater (8, 13) and white-headed petrel(5, 8). In spits 2-5, area X, plus area S5, the main taxa are sootyshearwater (16, 43), yellow-eyed penguin (7, 14), white-chinned petrel(6, 14) and southern royal albatross (5, 10). The prehistoric material thus indicates stronger targeting of themuttonbird (sooty shearwater), the largest available taxa (albatross andpenguin) and the facultatively flightless Auckland Island teal (Anasaucklandica), of which three individuals are recorded only in thisassemblage. The general absence of local landbirds, such as tui(Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae), parakeets (Cyanorharnphus spp.) and arail (Rallus muelleri), suggests a bias against fowling in the wetcoastal forest. The prominence of the shearwaters, petrels and albatrossindicate fowling during the September to May breeding period of thesespecies in the Auckland Islands, but occupation during the winter cannotbe ruled out. Mammal bone assemblages are split between Hookers sea lion(Phocarctos hookeri, MNI = 7), which breeds at Sandy Bay, and NewZealand fur seal The New Zealand Fur Seal or Southern Fur Seal (kokono in the Māori language), Arctocephalus fosteri, is a species of fur seal found around the south coast of Australia, the coast of the South Island of New Zealand, and some of the small islands to Arctocephalus forsteri, MNI = 7), which breedselsewhere on Enderby Island. Sea lion pup bone indicates local breedingsome 650 years ago, and capture during the summer months. Fur seal boneis dominant in spits 1 and 2 of area X, but it is replaced by sea lionbone in the lower spits. This might reflect either a cultural impact onthe Sandy Bay sea lion colony or a seasonal effect, since fur sealsremain once sea lions have largely departed following breeding. Somepieces of bone had been chewed in patterns characteristic of dogs (Canisfamiliaris), the first evidence that dogs reached the Subantarcticislands prehistorically (Figure 5). Remains of 14 seals and 124 largebirds, amongst those of fish and shellfish, within an excavated volumeof 1.6[m.sup.3], typify the high faunal density in colonisation sites. [FIGURE 5 OMITTED] Subpolar settlement and South Polynesia About 650 years ago, Polynesians and their dogs settled at SandyBay in the subpolar Auckland Islands, during at least one summer--autumnperiod, but probably for only a few years at most. They hunted sealions, fur seals and nesting seabirds, but there was little foraging inthe sea or coastal forest. Chert cobbles were fashioned into flake toolsand basalts tested for adze manufacture. Once habitation HABITATION, civil law. It was the right of a person to live in the house of another without prejudice to the property. 2. It differed from a usufruct in this, that the usufructuary might have applied the house to any purpose, as, a store or manufactory; whereas ceased (thereis no indication yet of whether the people left or died out), there wasno further settlement until after the European discovery of the islandsin AD 1807. When settlement resumed, it was by a group of Maori andMoriori in 1842-1856. They, and British colonists, 1849-1852, abandonedthe islands in the face of harsh environmental conditions (Dingwall etal. 1999). Further exploration is planned to determine whetherprehistoric Polynesians reached other subantarctic islands, notablyCampbell Island and the Antipodes. However, the 2003 expedition to the Auckland Islands completes thefirst archaeological survey of prehistoric colonisation in each of theoutlying archipelagos of South Polynesia: the Chathams, Kermadecs,Norfolk, Lord Howe and Subantarctic groups. As such, it invites a briefconsideration of initial colonisation patterns in the region. The data show considerable differences in settlement duration. TheChathams (700km east of New Zealand) were inhabited continuously, therewas relatively substantial settlement, marked by the existence of smallvillages, in the Kermadec and Norfolk Islands (800kin north-east andnorth-west of New Zealand, respectively) but only brief habitation inthe Subantarctic and none on Lord Howe Island Lord Howe Island,volcanic island (1991 pop. 371), 5 sq mi (12.9 sq km), S Pacific, a dependency of New South Wales, Australia. It is a resort c.300 mi (480 km) E of the Australian coast. The island was explored in 1788 by the British and was settled in 1834. (1200km west of NewZealand; Anderson 2003c). Leaving aside contingencies of survival insmall colonies, both demographic and social, it might be thought thatdifferences in available resources had been an important factor,especially since the South Polynesian islands are distributed over 21degrees of latitude (29-50[degrees]S). Yet, foraging regimes wereremarkably similar everywhere, with muttonbirding prominent in everycase (Anderson 1996), and sealing evident even in the subtropical sub��trop��i��cal?adj.Of, relating to, or being the geographic areas adjacent to the Tropics.subtropicalAdjectiveof the region lying between the tropics and temperate lands archipelagos. It was too cold to grow Polynesian cultigens such as sweetpotato in the Chathams or Subantarctic, but there is scarcely anyevidence to suggest that horticulture was available to the earlysubtropical colonists either; no remains of cultigens or associatedartefacts or structures are known from the archaeology of the Kermadecsor Norfolk. In the Subantarctic, the miserable climate and virtualabsence of plant foods to alleviate a diet of seals and birds, must havebeen a discouragement to long-term habitation. Otherwise, island sizemay have been important demographically. Excepting the Auddands, theChathams are 30 to 60 times the size of each of the other outlyinggroups. The pattern of initial colonisation in South Polynesia can beinferred from the distribution of sourced obsidians (Anderson 2000).These show that the Chathams and Kermadecs were settled directly fromNew Zealand, while Norfolk Island was settled from New Zealand via theKermadecs. The Auckland Islands were probably settled from southern NewZealand via the Snares, from which an adze of early type has beenrecovered (Anderson & O'Regan 2000). Rather than progressivecolonisation from the more congenial north to the cold south, as mighthave been expected in the light of tropical East Polynesian origins, thepattern was therefore essentially radial, expanding in all directionsfrom mainland New Zealand. Colonisation occurred at virtually the same time everywhere and ata period indistinguishable from that of the initial settlement of NewZealand (Anderson 1991). Prehistoric dates for Sandy Bay are virtuallythe same as those for the earliest known sites in the Kermadecs (Higham& Johnson 1996) and Norfolk Island (Anderson & White 2001).Current earliest dates for the Chathams are later, c. 450 BP, but thereare unexcavated sites which contained artefacts indicative of settlementseveral hundred years earlier (Duff 1956: 118). At an archaeologicaltimescale, the South Polynesian dispersal was thus almost instantaneous.In this, it conforms to the pattern of very rapid dispersal evident bothin East Polynesia, c. 1100-900 BP (Anderson & Sinoto 2002), and thec. 3300-2800 BP Lapita expansion in the west Pacific (Anderson 2003b). Colonisation in the Pacific sector of the subpolar zone is not asunexpected as it would seem elsewhere. Polynesian sailing technology wasmore advanced than that in southern South America, for example, so thatalthough the Falklands are a larger and closer target, they wereprobably out of reach until the advent of European ships. Nevertheless,they lie in the circumpolar cir��cum��po��lar?adj.1. Located or found in one of the Polar Regions.2. Astronomy Denoting a star that from a given observer's latitude does not go below the horizon. West Wind Drift and it is not impossiblethat they were reached accidentally; it would be much more surprising ifprehistoric seafarers For Seafarers International Union and affiliates, see Seafarers International Union of North America. ''Note: This article title may be easily confused with The Seafarer. had reached subpolar islands in the Indian Ocean This is a list of islands in the Indian Ocean. Eastern Indian Ocean(East of India) Andaman Islands (India) Ashmore and Cartier Islands (Australia) Christmas Island (Australia) Cocos (Keeling) Islands (Australia) Dirk Hartog Island (Australia) . Acknowledgements Thanks to Nga Runanga o Murihiku and Te Runanga o Ngai Tahu forapproval to work in the Subantarctic islands, and to Rachel Egerton,Paul Dingwall, Jeremy Carroll, and Andy Cox of the Department ofConservation (New Zealand), who arranged the 2003 expedition. I thankKatherine Szabo, Alan Tennyson, Ian Smith, Richard Walter and RodWallace for their analytical reports and Fiona Petchey for help withradiocarbon matters. The Centre for Archaeological Research (ANU Anu(ā`n), ancient sky god of Sumerian origin, worshiped in Babylonian religion. ) andthe Department of Conservation provided financial assistance withradiocarbon dating. Lyn Schmidt assisted with the illustrations. Received: 17 May 2004; Accepted: 12 October 2004; Revised: 13October 2004 References ANDERSON, A.J. 1981. The value of high-latitude models in southPacific archaeology: a critique. New Zealand Journal of Archaeology 3:143-60. --1991. The chronology of colonization in New Zealand. Antiquity65: 767-95. --1996. Origins of Procellariidae hunting in the southwest Pacific.International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 6: 1-8. --2000. Implications of prehistoric obsidian transfer in SouthPolynesia. Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association 20:117-23. --2003a. Prehistoric archaeology in the Auckland Islands, NewZealand Subantarctic region. Report to Department of Conservation,Wellington. --2003b. Initial human dispersal in remote Oceania: pattern andexplanation, in C. Sand (ed.) Pacific archaeology: assessments andprospects: 71-84. Noumea: Service des Musees et du Patrimoine. --2003c. Investigating early settlement on Lord Howe Island.Australian Archaeology 57: 98-102. ANDERSON, A.J., S. HABERLE, G. ROJAS, A. SEELENFREUND, I.W.G. SMITH& T. WORTHY. 2002. An archaeological exploration of Robinson CrusoeIsland For the island in Fiji, see .Robinson Crusoe Island (Spanish: Isla Robins��n Crusoe), formerly known as M��s a Tierra , Juan Fernandez Archipelago, Chile, in S. Bedford, C. Sand &D. Burley bur��ley?n. pl. bur��leysA light-colored tobacco grown chiefly in Kentucky and used especially in making cigarettes.[Probably from the name Burley.] (ed.) Fifty years in the field: essays in honour andcelebration of Richard Shutler Jr's archaeological career. 239-49.New Zealand Archaeological Association Monograph 25. ANDERSON, A.J. & G. O'REGAN. 2000. To the final shore;prehistoric colonisation of the Subantarctic islands in South Polynesia,in A.J. Anderson & T. Murray (ed.) Australian archaeologist:collected papers in honour of Jim Allen: 440-54. Canberra: CoombsAcademic Publishing. ANDERSON, A.J. & Y.H. SINOTO. 2002. New radiocarbon ages ofcolonization sites in East Polynesia. Asian Perspectives 41: 242-57. ANDERSON, A.J. & J.P. WHITE (ed.). 2001. The prehistoricarchaeology of Norfolk Island, southwest Pacific. Records of theAustralian Museum, Supplement 27. BRONK RAMSEY, C. 2001. Development of the radiocarbon calibrationprogram OxCal. Radiocarbon 43: 355-63. Department of Conservation. 1997. Subantarctic islands heritage.Wellington. DINGWALL, P.R., C. FRASER, J.G. GREGORY & C.J.R. ROBERTSON(ed.). 1999. Enderby settlement diaries: records of a British colony atthe Auckland Islands 1849-1852. Wellington: Wild Press and WordsellPress. DUFF, R. 1956. The Moa-hunter period of Maori culture. Wellington:Government Printer. GAMBLE, L.H. 2002. Archaeological evidence for the origin of theplank canoe in North America. American Antiquity 67: 310-15. GREEN, R.F. 1998. Rapanui origins prior to European contact, theview from eastern Polynesia, in P.V. Casanova (ed.) Easter Island andEast Polynesian prehistory: 87-110. Santiago: University of Chile “Universidad de Chile” redirects here. For the football club, see Club de F��tbol Universidad de Chile.HistoryBackgroundHigher education in Chile in colonial times dates back to 1622, when on 19 August of that year, the first university in Chile, . HEIZER, R.F. 1949. Curved single-piece fishhooks of shell and bonein California. American Antiquity 15: 89-97. HEYERDAHL, T. 1952. American Indians in the Pacific: the theorybehind the Kon-Tiki expedition. London: Allen & Unwin. HIGHAM, T.F.G. & L. JOHNSON. 1996. The prehistoric chronologyof Raoul Island, the Kermadec group. Archaeology in Oceania 31: 207-13. KINGSFORD, M.J., D.R. SCHIEL & C.N. BATTERSHILL. 1989.Distribution and abundance of fish in a rocky reef environment at thesubantarctic Auckland Islands, New Zealand. Polar Biology 9: 179-86. MARTINSSON-WALLIN, H. 1994. Ahu--the ceremonial stone structures ofEaster Island. Uppsala: Aun 19. McFADGEN, B.G. & J.C. YALDWYN. 1984. Holocene sand dunes onEnderby Island, Auckland Islands. New Zealand Journal of Geology andGeophysics 27: 27-33. O'CONNOR, S. & J. CHAPPELL. 2003. Colonisation and coastalsubsistence in Australia and Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea(păp`ə, –y : different timing,different modes? in C. Sand (ed.) Pacific archaeology: assessments andprospects: 17-32. Noumea: Service des Musees et du Patrimoine. RAMIREZ-ALIAGA, J.-M. 1992. Contactos transpacificos: unaceramiento al problema de los supuestos rasgos polinesicos en lacultura mapuche. Clava 5: 41-74. RICK, T.C., R.L. VELLANOWETH, J.M. ERLANDSON & D.J. KENNETT.2002. On the antiquity of the single-piece shell fishhook: AMS AMS - Andrew Message System radiocarbon evidence from the southern California coast. Journal ofArchaeological Science 29: 933-42. SUTTON, D.G. & Y.M. MARSHALL 1980. Coastal hunting in theSubantarctic zone. New Zealand Journal of Archaeology 2: 25-49. THORPE, W.W. 1929. Evidence of Polynesian culture in Australia andNorfolk Island. Journal of the Polynesian Society 38: 123-26. Atholl Anderson, Centre for Archaeological Research, AustralianNational University, Canberra ACT 0200, Australia (Email:aja@coombs.anu.edu.au)Table 1. Auckland Islands archaeological radiocarbon datesProvenance/Type Lab. No. CRACharcoal samplesLocation A: Midden Site Loc.A/1 ANU-11088 780 [+ or -] 60Location C: Oven site Loc.C/C6/1 ANU-11085 840 [+ or -] 60 Loc.C/C4/2 ANU-11086 660 [+ or -] 70 Loc.C/C4/2 ANU-11087 620 [+ or -] 60 Loc.C/C4/2 ANU-11236A 800 [+ or -] 50 Loc.C/Section ANU-11238 770 [+ or -] 70Location X: Occupation site AA1/2/4 ANU-12038 1030 [+ or -] 70 AA1/2/5 Wk-13651 701 [+ or -] 46 AB2/2/4 Wk-13652 658 [+ or -] 47 55/1/2 Wk-13653 720 [+ or -] 43Location Y: Midden site Loc.Y/1 ANU-11089 190 [+ or -] 60 Marine shell samplesLocation S: Midden site S5/1/2 ANU-12035 1200 [+ or -] 70Location X: Occupation site AA/2/4 ANU-12039 1280 [+ or -] 60 T/pit DD Wk-13426 676 [+ or -] 30 AC1/2/1 Wk-13427 661 [+ or -] 42 AA1/2/3 Wk-13428 1093 [+ or -] 48 AAI /2/3 Wk-13428 1126 [+ or -] 43 A132/2/4 Wk-13429 1174 [+ or -] 43 AB2/2/4 Wk-13429 1115 [+ or -] 43 AB1/2/1 Wk-13431 581 [+ or -] 42Bird bone samplesLocation S: Midden site S5/1/2 Wk-13441 1216 [+ or -] 43Location X: Occupation site AA1/2/4 Wk-13440 1289 [+ or -] 43 * estimated value [[partial derivative]Provenance/Type .sup.13] 68% 95%Charcoal samplesLocation A: Midden Site Loc.A/1 -24 * 1221-1288 1165-1303Location C: Oven site Loc.C/C6/1 -24 * 1165-1276 1036-1289 Loc.C/C4/2 -24 * 1286-1398 1248-1422 Loc.C/C4/2 -24 * 1297-1405 1283-1431 Loc.C/C4/2 -27.4 1211-1279 1159-1291 Loc.C/Section -24 * 1215-1291 1070-1385Location X: Occupation site AA1/2/4 -24 * 904-1034 887-1126 AA1/2/5 -25.7 1280-1390 1260-1400 AB2/2/4 -25.4 1295-1395 1280-1410 55/1/2 -25.7 1270-1390 1250-1400Location Y: Midden site Loc.Y/1 -24 * 1657-1954 1638-1955 Marine shell samplesLocation S: Midden site S5/1/2 0.0 * 1253-1414 1136-1469Location X: Occupation site AA/2/4 0.0 * 1180-1326 1048-1421 T/pit DD 0.7 1680-1880 1644-1950+ AC1/2/1 1.7 1690-1890 1651-1950+ AA1/2/3 1.3 1320-1460 1250-1550 AA1/2/3 1.1 1310-1440 1230-1510 A132/2/4 1.2 1280-1420 1230-1510 AB2/2/4 1.2 1310-1415 1240-1520 AB1/2/1 1.2 1803-1950+ 1710-1950+Bird bone samplesLocation S: Midden site S5/1/2 -15.4 1110-1230 1060-1270Location X: Occupation site AA1/2/4 -15.7 1030-1160 1010-1200 * estimated value

No comments:

Post a Comment