Some Changes.

Some Changes. This issue of the Journal introduces a new version of thePoint/Counterpoint section, one among other varieties that will appearfrom time to time. The new version included in this issue consists of aninvited commentary on a peer-reviewed, accepted paper and replies byboth authors. The basic purpose of the Point/ Counterpoint sectionremains the same: to encourage critical appraisal of alternative viewson controversial issues related to social work education. When I becameeditor of the Journal, a number of articles were already accepted (e.g.,see last issue as well as articles in this issue except parts of thePoint/Counterpoint section). One such article was on theory by BruceThyer. I invited Professor Thyer to participate in a dialogue withProfessor Gomory, and he graciously agreed. The dialogue concerning theory in this issue takes up considerablymore space than the usual Point/Counterpoint. One purpose of expandingthe varieties of Point/Counterpoint is to provide the room needed tounfold arguments, counterarguments, and related evidence concerningcontroversial issues and, in later issues, to draw on scholars outsideof social work as well as inside the field. Social work and its clientscan only benefit from building on the talents and literature within ourprofession as well as on the talents and related literature outside ofsocial work. One criterion that will be used to identify potentialtopics and contributors is the neglect of opposing views on an importanttopic. For example, I haven't seen any critiques in social work ofYehudi Webster's book Against the Multicultural Agenda (1997). Council on Social Work Education The Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) is the national association for social work education in the United States of America.The CSWE sets and maintains standards of courses and accreditation of bachelor's degree's and Master's degree programs in social work. accreditation standards requireschools of social work to help students acquire critical thinkingskills. I assume that the purpose of this requirement is to help socialworkers to arrive at well-reasoned beliefs and actions that help them toprovide effective, efficient, ethical services to clients. The NationalAssociation of Social Workers Code of Ethics calls on social workers todraw on practice/policy-related research findings in their work. Doingso effectively requires critical appraisal skills to review research andtheories. Thus, both in our code of ethics and our accreditationstandards, critical thinking and appraisal skills are emphasized. Suchskills are closely related to questions about knowledge and how toevaluate it--for example, questions about what criteria to use toevaluate theories. Students, as well as professors, are bombarded with claims aboutthe accuracy of practice/policy-related theories. Many claims overstatethe evidentiary base of preferred views and understate un��der��state?v. un��der��stat��ed, un��der��stat��ing, un��der��statesv.tr.1. To state with less completeness or truth than seems warranted by the facts.2. the evidentiarybase of competing views. Consider, for example, claims regarding theNIMH Multimodal Treatment Study for Attention-Deficit/HyperactivityDisorder (MTA (1) (Message Transfer Agent or Mail Transfer Agent) The store and forward part of a messaging system. See messaging system.(2) See M Technology Association. 1. (messaging) MTA - Message Transfer Agent. Cooperative Group, 1999) and critiques of this study(e.g., Breggin, 2000). Different views about the role of theory and howto test theory have implications for decisions social workers make aboutwhat research findings apply to clients and also influence whatresearchers do. A relativist rel��a��tiv��ist?n.1. Philosophy A proponent of relativism.2. A physicist who specializes in the theories of relativity. may argue that all views of knowledge andways of testing knowledge claims are equally valuable and informative. Alogical positivist might argue that we can only test what we can see.Such assumptions will influence research methods selected. Charles Peirce suggested four different ways of justifying beliefs.One is the method of tenacity. Here we merely cling tenaciously to our customary beliefs. We may not know how we came to have them, nor do we care. Our primary consideration is to avoid the anxiety of doubt which would threaten us if we were to admit for a minute that there is any degree of uncertainty about our present state of knowledge. (Atkinson, 1964, p. 64) A second method is authority. We may not care how the authorityarrived at his or her opinion. A third method is that of a priori a prioriIn epistemology, knowledge that is independent of all particular experiences, as opposed to a posteriori (or empirical) knowledge, which derives from experience. reasoning. We ask, Are the ideas intuitively compelling? Are theyself-evident truths? As highlighted by Atkinson (1964), not one of thethree methods provides a way to deal with disagreements. "None ofthem provides for the correction of a false opinion" (p. 64).Peirce suggests that a fourth way, the method of science, is the onemost likely to be able to identify what is correct and what is not.Consider also Karl Popper's (1994, p. 69) view that "criticalreason is the only alternative to violence so far discovered."Peirce notes that the first three methods have many advantages. It is not to be supposed that the first three methods of settling opinion present no advantage whatever over the scientific method. On the contrary, each has some peculiar convenience of its own. The a priori method is distinguished for its comfortable conclusions. It is the nature of the process to adopt whatever beliefs we are inclined to, and there are certain flatteries to the vanity of man which we all believe by nature until we are awakened from our pleasing dream by rough facts. The method of authority will always govern the mass of mankind; and those who wield the various forms of organized force in the state will never be convinced that dangerous reasoning ought not to be suppressed in some way.... Singularly enough, the persecution does not all come from without; but a man torments himself and is oftentimes most distressed at finding himself believing propositions which he has been brought up to regard with aversion. The peaceful and sympathetic man will, therefore, find it hard to resist the temptation to submit his opinions to authority. But most of all I admire the method of tenacity for its strength, simplicity, and directness. Men who pursue it are distinguished for their decision of character, which becomes very easy with such a mental rule. They do not waste time in trying to make up their minds what they want, but, fastening like lightning upon whatever alternative comes first, they hold it to the end, whatever happens, without an instant's irresolution. This is one of the special qualities which generally accompany brilliant, unlasting success. It is impossible not to envy the man who can dismiss reason, although we know how it must turn out at last. Such are the advantages which the other methods of settling opinion have over scientific investigation. A man should consider well of them; and then he should consider that, after all, he wishes his opinions to coincide with the fact, and that there is no reason why the results of those three first methods should do so. To bring about this effect is the prerogative of the method of science. (Peirce, 1877, pp. 13-14, as cited in Atkinson, pp. 64-65) A study of the use of evidence in argumentative Controversial; subject to argument.Pleading in which a point relied upon is not set out, but merely implied, is often labeled argumentative. Pleading that contains arguments that should be saved for trial, in addition to allegations establishing a Cause of Action or reasoning regardingschool failure, repeated crime, and unemployment found that less thanhalf of the 160 subjects gave any evidence at all (Kuhn, 1991). Manysubjects viewed such complex issues as related to one single cause aboutwhich they were certain. Of the nine kinds of evidence (e.g.,covariation Noun 1. covariation - (statistics) correlated variationstatistics - a branch of applied mathematics concerned with the collection and interpretation of quantitative data and the use of probability theory to estimate population parameters , correlated change), most used only one. Provision ofpseudoevidence was the most prevalent response. The majority acceptedexamples they gave as proof of preferred causal theories. Some gave thepseudoevidence of effect as evidence of its cause. Our original viewsare quite resistant to counterevidence often on questionable groundssuch as examples that "cannot be disproved, because they reallyhappened" (p. 80). Counterexamples are often dismissed asexceptions. Some argue that too much attention is paid to theory. Others arguethat we neglect theory to the detriment of knowledge growth. Forexample, Alan Kazdin (1999) argues that we neglect theory inpsychotherapy research, and that we should devote much more attention tohow intervention creates valued changes to maximize the effects ofintervention, as well as to add to our knowledge base. Views about therole of theory may be especially complex in professions in whichpractitioners and policymakers must act in the real world. Views ofresearchers may differ from those of practitioners and policymakers. It seems important for students to accurately understand differentapproaches to knowledge and related controversies and to acquire theskills and motivation needed to critically appraise appraisev. to professionally evaluate the value of property including real estate, jewelry, antique furniture, securities, or in certain cases the loss of value (or cost of replacement) due to damage. theories and relatedclaims. Yet, we often offer courses that emphasize a description oftheories with little attention to criteria for appraising them. We haveall had courses designed to provide an overview of various theories inan area (e.g., personality, child development). There are many books onthe market describing different theories of counseling. Typically, thesebooks do not provide guidelines for critically appraising differenttheories. Or, if they do, the authors do not apply these guidelinesthroughout the book to review theories described, including relatedevidence and counterevidence. I hope that the Gomory-Thyer debate willbe of value to readers in enhancing their understanding of differentperspectives concerning the role of theory and how to test it. Theclaims we make regarding particular theories may profoundly affect ourclients. This issue introduces a new section on technology edited byMarshall Smith, Social Work Department, Rochester Institute ofTechnology, and Robert Vernon, School of Social Work, Indiana StateUniversity Indiana State University,main campus at Terre Haute; coeducational; est. 1865 as a normal school, became Indiana State Teachers College in 1929, gained university status in 1965. There is also a campus at Evansville (opened 1965). . The purpose of TechNotes is to bring to the reader'sattention developments in and uses of technology relevant to social workeducation. Consider, for example, websites designed to help socialworkers and clients acquire critical appraisal skills, such as theCritical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP CASP California Anti-SLAPP ProjectCASP Critical Appraisal Skills ProgrammeCASP Canadian Association for Suicide PreventionCASP California Association of School PsychologistsCASP Comprehensive Agricultural Support Programme (South Africa)) in Oxford. A PowerPointpresentation for teaching critical appraisal skills can be downloadedfree of charge (see the "Critical Appraisal Skills Workshop"on the CASP website). CASP has been providing workshops designed to helpprofessionals and clients acquire critical appraisal skills for years.Workshop aims and objectives are to help participants improve theirskills in finding, appraising, and acting on the evidence, includingfinding evidence systematically about clinical effectiveness, especiallyin reviews and other summaries. Objectives include being aware of (1)the range and quality of available sources of evidence abouteffectiveness, (2) how searching techniques and search strategies mayaffect outcomes and what problems are associated with searchingdifferent sources, (3) options available to obtain and organize journalarticles and other documents, and (4) how to share and learn from theexperiences of other participants. CASP provides workshops for trainingthe trainers as well as workshops for clients and professionals. Consider also websites that provide reviews of research related toimportant practice questions, such as the Cochrane Collaboration. TheCochrane Collaboration is a worldwide network of centers designed toprepare, maintain, and disseminate high quality reviews of the effectsof health care to help people make informed decisions (Chalmers,Sackett, & Silagy, 1997). Material is available by subscription. TheCampbell Collaboration headed by Robert Boruch, School of Education,University of Pennsylvania (body, education) University of Pennsylvania - The home of ENIAC and Machiavelli.http://upenn.edu/.Address: Philadelphia, PA, USA. , has recently been formed to study questionsregarding social and educational interventions. Other websites easilyfound through major Internet search engines include Evidence-BasedHealth Care (see, for example, the "EBM EBM Evidence-Based MedicineEBM Electronic Body MusicEBM ecosystem-based managementEBM Evidence Based Medical (statistics)EBM Environmentally Benign ManufacturingEBM Expressed Breast MilkEBM Executive Board Meeting Toolbox"), Center forHealth Evidence in Canada (which includes users' guides toevidence-based practice), NHS NHSabbr.National Health ServiceNHS(in Britain) National Health Service (National Health Service) Center forReviews and Dissemination. Contents in the British Medical Journal The British Medical Journal, or BMJ, is one of the most popular and widely-read peer-reviewed general medical journals in the world.[2] It is published by the BMJ Publishing Group Ltd (owned by the British Medical Association), whose other can be viewed and containmany contributions of relevance to social workers and their clients. TheNational Electronic Library for Health is now online. The aim of thislibrary is to provide health professionals with easy and fast access tothe best current knowledge. It is designed to act as a quality filter"so that data accessed through the site, for both clinicians andthe public, will not only be the best current knowledge but will also befree from bias and conflict of interest" (see "NationalElectronic Library," 2000, p. 1309). Bandolier, published by theNational Health Service of Britain, is a newsletter designed to keepreaders up to date with literature on the effectiveness of health careinterventions. It is available in full text on the Internet. The sourceis characterized by candid appraisal of claims, very clear writing, agood sense of humor Noun 1. sense of humor - the trait of appreciating (and being able to express) the humorous; "she didn't appreciate my humor"; "you can't survive in the army without a sense of humor"sense of humour, humor, humour and an understanding of the pressures of everydayprofessional practice. (See the reference list for addresses ofwebsites.) Publications of interest include Effective Health Care a bimonthly bi��month��ly?adj.1. Happening every two months.2. Happening twice a month; semimonthly.adv.1. Once every two months.2. Twice a month; semimonthly.n. pl. bulletin for decision makers which examines the effectiveness of healthcare interventions. Effective Health Care bulletins are based on asystematic review and synthesis of research on the clinicaleffectiveness, cost-effectiveness, and acceptability of health careinterventions. Examples of topics in volume one that may be of interestto social workers include the treatment of depression in primary care,grief interventions and alcohol abuse, and implementing clinicalpractice guidelines clinical practice guidelinesClinical policies, practice guidelines, practice parameters, practice policies Medtalk Systematically developed statements to assist practitioner and Pt decisions about appropriate health care for specific clinical circumstances. See Psychology. . Examples in volume two include preventing falls andsubsequent injury in older people and preventing unintentional injuriesin children and young adolescents. Effectiveness Matters is an update onthe effectiveness of important health interventions for practitionersand decision makers in the NHS. It is produced by researchers at the NHSCenter for Reviews and Dissemination at the University of York This article is about the British university. For the Canadian university, see York University. The University of York is a campus university in York, England. , incollaboration with subject area experts. Evidence Based Purchasing is abimonthly digest prepared by the NHS Executive Research and DevelopmentProgram. Although technology may change, some questions are always relevant(e.g., what do students learn in relation to a given instructionalformat and what is the impact of this learning on their work withclients, including outcomes attained). Such questions are of relevancewhether courses are taught through a virtual university or in atraditional classroom. In neither case have we been excited aboutsystematically evaluating what we do to what effect, especially onclient outcomes. This new technology section can bring a balancedperspective to the potential of technology in professional education andpractice (e.g., see Stoll, 1999). I asked the editors of TechNotes to prepare a piece on plagiarism Using ideas, plots, text and other intellectual property developed by someone else while claiming it is your original work. .This is a concern in all educational venues and technology can help usto deal with it. Although plagiarism may help students by saving timeand effort, it is hard to see how it helps clients. Studies in highereducation show that cheating is common. For example, more than threequarters of the almost 2,000 students surveyed at nine large publicinstitutions in 1993 "admitted to one or more instances of seriouscheating on tests or examinations, or to having engaged in seriousacademic dishonesty on written assignments" (reported in McCabe& Drinan, 1999, p. B-7). Donald McCabe ..., founder of the Center for Academic Integrity, has found that more than 75 percent of college students cheat at least once during their undergraduate careers. Particularly alarming is research gathered by Who's Who Among High School Students indicating that 80 percent of high-achieving, college-bound students have cheated, that they think cheating is commonplace, and that more than half do not consider cheating a serious transgression. New technologies have also made it easier to cheat: the Educational Testing Service notes that one website providing free term papers to students has averaged 80,000 hits per day. (Center for Academic Integrity, 1999) "Term-paper mills," as some professors dub them sell orgive away term papers. McCabe and Driman (2000) suggest that studentsdefine plagiarism more leniently than did students many years ago. Theyemphasize the importance of clearly defining plagiarism, having a clearwritten academic integrity statement that is widely distributed andaccessible to faculty and students, and having related procedures inplace. These authors suggest that "in the absence of any guidance,students will make assumptions about appropriate use that are mostconvenient for them--assumptions that often differ substantially fromthe views of faculty members or the institution" (p. B-7), such asbelieving that material found on the Internet does not require citation. N. O. Keohane, president of Duke University, writes that researchconducted by the Center for Academic Integrity suggests "thatcampus norms and practices, such as effective honor codes, can make asignificant difference in student behaviors, attitudes, andbeliefs" (Center for Academic Integrity, 1999). The Center forAcademic Integrity is a group of 200 colleges and universities.According to the Center, academic integrity involves a commitment, evenin the face of adversity, to five values: honesty, trust, fairness,respect, and responsibility. Recommendations developed by the Centerinclude the following: 1. Have clear academic integrity statements, policies, andprocedures that are consistently implemented. 2. Inform and educate the entire community regarding academicintegrity policy and procedures. 3. Promulgate To officially announce, to publish, to make known to the public; to formally announce a statute or a decision by a court. and practice rigorously these policies and procedures Policies and Procedures are a set of documents that describe an organization's policies for operation and the procedures necessary to fulfill the policies. They are often initiated because of some external requirement, such as environmental compliance or other governmental from the top down, and provide support to those who faithfully followand uphold them. 4. Have a clear, accessible, and equitable system to adjudicate adjudicate (jōō´dikāt´),v suspected violations of policy. 5. Develop programs to promote academic integrity among allsegments of the campus community. These programs should go beyondrepudiation of academic dishonesty and include discussions about theimportance of academic integrity and its connection to broader ethicalissues and concerns. 6. Be alert to trends in higher education and technology affectingacademic integrity on campus. 7. Assess regularly the effectiveness of policies and proceduresand take steps to improve and rejuvenate re��ju��ve��nate?tr.v. re��ju��ve��nat��ed, re��ju��ve��nat��ing, re��ju��ve��nates1. To restore to youthful vigor or appearance; make young again.2. them. (Center for AcademicIntegrity, 1999) I hope that readers enjoy and benefit from the new TechNotessection and the other content in this issue. REFERENCES Atkinson, J. W. (1964). An introduction to motivation. Princeton,NJ: Van Nostrand. Bandolier, http://www.jr2.ox.ac.uk/Bandolier. Breggin, P. R. (2000). A critical analysis of the NIMH MultimodalTreatment Study for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (The MTAStudy). Ethical Human Sciences and Services, 2, 63-72. Campbell Collaboration, http://campbell.gse. upenn.edu. Carnevale, D. (1999, November 12). Web services help professorsdetect plagiarism. Chronicle of Higher Education, p. A49. Center for Academic Integrity. (1999, October). The fundamentalvalues of academic integrity: A report from the Center for AcademicIntegrity [Online]. Available athttp://www.academicintegrity.org/Values.asp. Chalmers, I., Sackett, D., & Silagy, C. (1997). The CochraneCollaboration. In A. Maynard & I. Chalmers (Eds.), Non-randomreflections on health services research Health services research is the multidisciplinary field of scientific investigation that studies how social factors, financing systems, organizational structures and processes, health technologies, and personal behaviors affect access to health care, the quality and cost of health care, : On the 25th anniversary ofArchie Cochrane's effectiveness and efficiency (pp. 231-249).London: British Medical Journal. Cochrane Collaboration, http://www.updatesoftware.com/ccweb/default.html. Critical Appraisal Skills Program (CASP). Institute of HealthServices health servicesManaged care The benefits covered under a health contract . Old Road, Headington, OX3 7LF, casp@earthlink.com, http://www.mailbase.ac.uk/lists/critical-appraisal-skills. Evidence-Based Medicine evidence-based medicineDecision-making 'The use of scientific data to confirm that proposed diagnostic or therapeutic procedures are appropriate in light of their high probability of producing the best and most favorable outcome'.See Meta-analysis. Toolkit, http://www.med.ualberta.ca/ebm/ebm.htm. Kazdin, A. E. (1999). Current (lack of) status of theory in childand adolescent psychotherapy research. Journal of Clinical ChildPsychology, 28, 533-543. Kuhn, D. (1991). The skills of argument. New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of : CambridgeUniversity Press Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP) is a publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534, and one of the two privileged presses (the other being Oxford University Press). . McCabe, D. L., & Drinan, P. (1999, October 15). Toward aculture of academic integrity. Chronicle of Higher Education, p. B7. MTA Cooperative Group. (1999). A 14-month randomized clinical trial randomized clinical trial,n a clinical study where volunteer participants with comparable characteristics are randomly assigned to different test groups to compare the efficacy of therapies. of treatment strategies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.Archives of General Psychiatry Archives of General Psychiatry is a monthly professional medical journal published by the American Medical Association. Archives of General Psychiatry publishes original, peer-reviewed articles about psychiatry, mental health, behavioral science and related fields. , 56, 1073-1086. National Electronic Library for Health Goes Live. (2000). BritishMedical Journal, 321, 1309. Peirce, C. S. (1877). Illustrations of the logic of science. Firstpaper--The fixation of belief. Popular Science Monthly, 12, 1-15. Popper, K. (1994). The myth of the framework: In defense of scienceand rationality. New York: Routledge. Stoll, C. (1999). High-tech heretic: Reflections of a computercontrarian. New York: Anchor. Webster, Y. O. (1997). Against the multicultural agenda: A criticalthinking alternative. Westport, CT: Praeger.