The first specialised copper industry in the Iberian peninsula: Cabezo Jure (2900-2200 BC).

The first specialised copper industry in the Iberian peninsula: Cabezo Jure (2900-2200 BC). Introduction The origin of copper-working has been a key issue in Europeanprehistory prehistory,period of human evolution before writing was invented and records kept. The term was coined by Daniel Wilson in 1851. It is followed by protohistory, the period for which we have some records but must still rely largely on archaeological evidence to since V.G. Childe associated it with the development ofEuropean civilisation. In spite of Renfrew's (1969, 1970) importantearly suggestion that metallurgy might have had an independent origin inIberia, a paradigm has persisted that Europe's westernmost peoplesperformed secondary and dependent roles as copper-workers. This hasfound support in the archaeological records of south-eastern Spain,which suggest both a late start for copper metallurgy (late thirdmillennium BC) and its practice at a low technical level and domesticscale (Cunliffe 1994; Champion et al. 1984; Chapman 1990, 2003; Gilman1991, 1996; Montero mon��te��ro?n. pl. mon��te��rosA hunter's cap with side flaps.[Spanish, hunter, from monte, mountain, from Latin m 1993; Rovira 2002). Copper-working at industriallevels appeared only after the incorporation of the Iberian peninsula Iberian Peninsula,c.230,400 sq mi (596,740 sq km), SW Europe, separated from the rest of Europe by the Pyrenees. Comprising Spain and Portugal, it is washed on the N and W by the Atlantic Ocean and on the S and E by the Mediterranean Sea; the Strait of Gibraltar into the orbit of the Mediterranean civilisations of the firstmillennium BC (Frank 1995; Gills 1995; Gills & Frank 1993). A recent archaeological research programme in the main miningdistrict of the southwest Iberian peninsula has profoundly altered thisview. It has revealed a copper metallurgy whose antiquity, scale ofproduction and technological and social complexity proves it to be notonly the oldest in Western Europe Western EuropeThe countries of western Europe, especially those that are allied with the United States and Canada in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (established 1949 and usually known as NATO). but also comparable to those claimedas the originating models for copper production anywhere (Craddock 1995;Bartelheim et al. 2002). The research has produced evidence for highlyspecialised copper production mining and metallurgy throughout the firsthalf of the third millennium BC. This industry had a considerableenvironmental impact, including deforestation deforestationProcess of clearing forests. Rates of deforestation are particularly high in the tropics, where the poor quality of the soil has led to the practice of routine clear-cutting to make new soil available for agricultural use. , pollution from heavymetals heavy metals,n.pl metallic compounds, such as aluminum, arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, and nickel. Exposure to these metals has been linked to immune, kidney, and neurotic disorders. and acid drainage (Nocete et al. 2005a) and its social context isbecoming evident in the form of a division of labour within aterritorial framework (Nocete 2000, 2001) and a hierarchicalsupra-regional structure of core-periphery relationships (Nocete 2004,2005; Nocete et al. 2005b). In this paper, I describe the site and arguethe highly structured social relations that can be inferred. The site Cabezo Jure was selected from a total of one hundred and forty-fivearchaeological sites involved in mining activity (copper, chert chert:see flint. ,variscite, etc.) in the Iberian Pyrite pyrite(pī`rīt)or iron pyrites(pīrī`tēz, pə–, pī`rīts), pale brass-yellow mineral, the bisulfide of iron, FeS2. Belt, which constitutes one ofthe largest concentration of sulphide ores known on Earth (Saez et al.1996) (Figure 1). Systematic landscape survey was followed by targetedexcavation, the details of which are published elsewhere (Nocete et al.2004a, b, c). The site is 2 hectares in extent, stands on a slight rise,and may be divided into three parts. The ore smelting furnaces were onthe southern slope in the open air. The residential area consists of aseries of huts arranged on terraces on the northern slopes. Betweenthem, on the summit (Upper Platform), is a stone fort, protecting agreat water storage cistern cistern/cis��tern/ (sis��tern) a closed space serving as a reservoir for fluid, e.g., one of the enlarged spaces of the body containing lymph or other fluid. (Figure 2). Between these three areas,activities were rigorously demarcated by function: processing of oretook place on the south slope and copper casting in the residential areato the north. The fortress, by contrast, featured no metal-working andall the exotic imports were concentrated there: marine molluscs, broughtat least 30km from the coast, and items of gold sheet, ceramic andmarble cups, linen textiles, cereals, that had travelled up to 200km(Nocete 2001) (Figure 6). The radiocarbon dates obtained show that thefirst occupation of the settlement was at the beginning of the thirdmillennium BC and subsequently continued until the beginning of thesecond millennium (Figure 3). During this time it was permanent anduninterrupted, as confirmed by the analysis of shell growth patternsfrom the molluscs. [FIGURES 1-3 & 6 OMITTED] Agricultural tools or features connected with the production offood were conspicuously absent, implying a specialist site. Pollen andplant data endorse this observation (Nocete 2004; Nocete et al. 2005a).However, the faunal assemblages did produce evidence for an importantlevel of hunting. Deer, wild boar, Spanish ibex The Iberian or Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica) is a type of ibex that had four subspecies. Two subspecies can still be found on the Iberian peninsula, but two others are extinct. , partridge and rabbitappeared to represent up to 36 per cent of the nutrition (Nocete et al.2004a). As well as the absence of species indicating any sort of farmingactivity, a process of systematic deforestation was detected. This firstaffected the riverside forest, of black poplar black poplarsymbol of bravery. [Plant Symbolism: Flora Symbolica, 176]See : Bravery , ash and other woods, andlater on the forests of Holm oak. Arboreal arborealpertaining to trees, treelike, tree-dwelling. pollen was rapidly reducedfrom 13 per cent (4220 BP) to 1.5 per cent (4059 BP). Deforestation thuscoincided with the constant and progressive consumption of wood for thefurnaces for copper ore reduction and smelting. Data supporting asimilar process in other settlements of the Iberian Pyrite Belt, such asLa Junta (Bayona et al. 2005), signal its regional intensity and providean explanation for the strong erosion and acid drainage into the Gulf ofCadiz, reflected in the sedimentary record and the marine fauna(shellfish) of the mid-third millennium BC (Alex et al. 2004; Nieto etal. 2001; Nocete et al. 2005a). The industry The excavation data indicate that the site was settled by acommunity that was already technologically and socially specialised inthe metallurgical production of copper. Specialisation was manifest inthe massive presence of copper ores (carbonates: malachite malachite(măl`əkīt), a mineral, the green basic carbonate of copper occurring in crystals of the monoclinic system or (more usually) in masses. It is translucent or opaque; the luster is silky, vitreous, adamantine, or dull. and azurite azurite(ăzh`ərīt), blue mineral, the basic carbonate of copper, occurring in monoclinic crystals or masses that range from transparent to translucent and opaque. ;oxides: cuprite cu��prite?n.A natural red secondary ore of copper, essentially Cu2O, that forms as a result of weathering.Noun 1. , tenorite and sulphides: chalcocite chalcociteSulfide mineral, Cu2S, that may be an important ore of copper. It belongs to a group of sulfide minerals formed at relatively low temperatures. Chalcocite alters to native copper and other copper minerals. and covellite co��vel��lite?n.A lustrous indigo-blue mineral, CuS, an important ore of copper.[After Nicol�� Covelli (1790-1829), Italian mineralogist.] ), thedistribution of features (furnaces) and artefacts (crucibles, hammers,moulds) relating to relating torelate prep → concernantrelating torelate prep → bez��glich +gen, mit Bezug auf +acccopper production (Figure 4). Also present wereabundant pieces of slag and fragments of metal objects at various stagesof production, including axes, knives and saws (Figure 5). [FIGURES 4-5 OMITTED] Lead isotope analyses suggest that the enriched copper ore used atCabezo Jure was extracted in the district of Tharsis, 5km away (Saez etal. 1999; 2004). This implies deep mining (levels of the enriched oresare recorded at a depth of 30 metres) as also documented elsewhere inWestern Europe (O'Brien 1990; Blas 1998; Ambert 2003). That theores were transferred to a fortified fortified (fôrt´fīd),adj containing additives more potent than the principal ingredient. settlement, rather than beingrefined at the mine, implies defensive control of the resources. Thecost of transporting the ores and timber fuel to the settlement wasalleviated through an increase in efficiency. This is how we mayinterpret the quantities of horse bones (always from adults), which roseas the quantities of ores rose and as the quantities of tree-pollen fell(Saez et al. 2004: 269). The presence of copper ores in 95 per cent ofthe settlement, and their association with specialised grindinginstruments in which the large grinders predominate (Saez et al. 2004:269), suggest that a majority of the settlement population was engagedin this stage of preparing the ore. Chemical and mineralogical study of the slag (Saez et al. 2003)indicates that there were two stages in ore processing. The first(reduction) took place in large furnaces (Figure 4), where silicates,extracted in the neighbourhood of the settlement, were mixed with thecopper ores (50 per cent). The presence of plagioclase plagioclaseAny member of the series of abundant feldspar minerals that usually occur as light- to medium-grey-coloured, transparent to translucent grains or crystals. Plagioclase ranges in composition from albite to anorthite. rich in calciumand pyroxene pyroxene(pī`rŏksēn), name given to members of a group of widely distributed rock minerals called metasilicates in which magnesium, iron, and calcium, often with aluminum, sodium, lithium, manganese, or zinc occur as X in the chemical (diopside-hedenbergite) indicates that the mixture washeated to temperatures higher than 1200[degrees]C (Saez et al. 2003),and the presence of Fe and Cu oxides indicates forced ventilationthrough the use of tuyeres. Examples of tuyeres were recovered (Figure4) and their clamping points to the furnace walls were also recorded.From the beginning of occupation, the reduction stage was carried outexclusively on the southern slope of the settlement, in the open,outside the fortified area, oriented towards the dominant south-westwinds and far away from the residential area on the northern slope ofthe settlement. Four furnaces were worked in unison, their size,capacity and the height of the walls defining the oldest westernprototypes, clearly differentiated from the structures of combustionknown in other spheres of Western Europe in the third millennium BC(Ambert 2003). The second stage (refining) took place in ceramic crucibles (Figure4) at around 1000[degrees]C, also with forced ventilation. By contrastto the reduction stage, this activity was located in the residentialvillage on the northern slope of the settlement, where it wasextensively distributed in domestic contexts and clearly involved themajority of the population. Remains of carbon recovered from thecrucibles show that a wide variety of tree species was used, aimed atachieving rapid combustion. Flat stones were incorporated in the ovensso that crucibles could be placed on a level surface. The refiners alsomade use of pairs of stone tongs, probably to manipulate the cruciblesin high temperatures. The tongs were made of carved stone and werehighly standardised; they measure 300-500mm in length, and 20mm inthickness. Their width, at 25mm, correlates closely (95.66 per cent) tothe height of the crucibles (Nocete 2004: 292; Nocete et al. 2005b:Figs. 8 and 9). Specialised implements (for example foundry hammers and anvils)were found with manufactured objects at different stages of production.The abundance of scrap and an apparent lack of recycling shows aprofligate prof��li��gate?adj.1. Given over to dissipation; dissolute.2. Recklessly wasteful; wildly extravagant.n.A profligate person; a wastrel. use of raw material which can only be explained in a contextof specialisation and intensive production. Objects (for example kniveswhich represented 36 per cent of the production) occur in standardisedforms and dimensions (Figure 5). Cast in moulds, and with a regular andcomplex forging of its blades in five phases, the knives of Cabezo Jurebecame the settlement's principal and most sophisticated product(Bayona et al. 2003). Towards the end of the third millennium, the industry went intodecline. Although furnaces, tuyeres, crucibles and tongs were prevalentbetween 2900 and 2200 BC, they disappeared after 2200 BC and weresuperseded by reduction in simple clay vessels. This indicates atransformation from a community specialised in metal production to acommunity in which this activity is fulfilled in a non-intensifiedsphere, without a technical division of labour, and oriented towardssatisfying purely local needs. The association of comparable furnaces, tuyeres, crucibles andtongs occurs in other settlements of similar chronology in thesouth-west of the Iberian Peninsula such as La Junta (Bayona et al.2005), Valencina (Queipo 2004), Carmona (Conlin 2003) and Amarguillo(Cabrero 1997). In the French Midi, settlements that specialised incopper smelting such as Chapelle du Broum (Peret-Herault), have similarcrucibles to those of Cabezo Jure (Ambert 2003). Likewise, in thesouth-east of Spain, the only records of specialised copper-workingactivity, as at Las Pilas Las Pilas is a volcano located in the western part of Nicaragua. ReferencesSmithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Program: Las Pilas and Santa Barbara (Almeria, Spain), alsoconfirm the presence of crucibles and tuyeres similar to Cabezo Jure andthe absence of simple reduction pots. It might be thought thatindustrial metallurgy is simply an alternative to domestic production(Rovira & Ambert 2002), and offered a contrast between thesouth-east and south-west of the Iberian peninsula. But the fact thatone technology followed the other at Cabezo Jure is surely of greatersignificance. Discussion It can be strongly argued that Cabezo Jure represents ahierarchical society exploiting copper on an industrial scale from theearly part of the third millennium BC. The greater part of the CabezoJure site (95 per cent) lying on its northern and southern slopes, wasdensely occupied with copper-working processes. The remaining 5 percent, lying in the fortress on the summit, was contemporary butdissociated from this activity. The contrast between the character ofthe fortress and its external contacts on the one hand, and thededicated industry of the metal-working areas on the other, show theexistence of a deep social asymmetry among two sectors of thepopulation. Although both social groups shared a similar consumption ofmeat (cow, pig, deer, wild boar), the residents of the fortified placeconsumed three times as much as their equivalents in the north village.The people occupying the summit had at their exclusive disposal the onlymeans of defence (weapons, fortifications). They also had exclusiveaccess to the circulation networks of exotic food (molluscs) and imports(ceramic and marble cups, stone blades, gold ornaments) (Figure 6), thereward for which can only have been copper products. The occupants of the village, settled outside the fortified place,without means of defence and with no access to such singular products ofexotic origin, engaged in intensive and specialised metallurgicproduction, as well as ore extraction, transportation and the systematicexploitation of the forests for fuel. The animal bone evidence suggeststhat they had little right to dispose of To determine the fate of; to exercise the power of control over; to fix the condition, application, employment, etc. of; to direct or assign for a use.See also: Dispose either the horses thatfacilitated the transport of copper ore, or of the herds of sheep fordairy and textile production. Nor is there evidence for storagefacilities that would suggest some access to surplus. Numbers ofterracotta figurines, featuring riders or fertility themes, were foundin the residential areas of the north village (Figure 6). These perhapspoint to the development of an integrating ideology or group identity;but the use of such standard idols could also suggest the ideologicalapparatus of class, justifying the social relationships of Cabezo Jureand hiding their inequalities in a legitimating myth. The implication is that without participating in the processes ofproduction the residents of the fortified place had exclusive access tothe rewards of production, protection and social reproduction (horses,sheep, cisterns, fortification fortification,system of defense structures for protection from enemy attacks. Fortification developed along two general lines: permanent sites built in peacetime, and emplacements and obstacles hastily constructed in the field in time of war. , etc.). By contrast, in spite of makinguse of a wide range of tools and materials, the villagers had noownership of the principal means of production Means Of Production is a compilation of Aim's early 12" and EP releases, recorded between 1995 and 1998. Track listing"Loop Dreams" – 5:30 "Diggin' Dizzy" – 5:33 "Let the Funk Ride" – 5:11 "Original Stuntmaster" – 6:33 (furnaces) or defence(fortification). This transformation of the social relationships of production andthe introduction of new forms of social organisation Noun 1. social organisation - the people in a society considered as a system organized by a characteristic pattern of relationships; "the social organization of England and America is very different"; "sociologists have studied the changing structure of the family" in which theinequalities were enlarged and reproduced with greater facility waspossible for many reasons: firstly, the occupation of a new territoryand the absence of the traditions and social relationships of agrarianforms of society in which the producers have control of the means ofproduction; secondly, the appropriation of a new resource (copper)foreign to the agrarian history and its social limitations; and lastly,the need for mechanisms to ensure the continuity of production andcirculation, through economic dependency and a political network (Nocete2005). Thus, a profoundly asymmetrical and unequal social form is shaped,in which one group of the population expresses itself as the dominantclass through its monopoly of the use of force, and the ownership ofhorses and sheep, as well as of a new and critical resource, namelycopper, that did not have to be subjected to the traditions andlimitations of collective property (such as land). By annexing thefurnaces of copper ore reduction to the fortified place, from which thehuts of the producers are excluded, and having exclusive use of the mainmeans of transport See: mode of transport. (the horse), they materialised their ownership overthe mines and the workforce. This situated itself at the threshold At the Threshold, whose son Lil E. Tee won the 1992 Kentucky Derby for W. Cal Partee, died March 23 of a stroke at Purdue University School of Veterinary Medicine in West Lafayette, Ind. The 21-year-old stallion stood at Wayne Houston's Stoney Creek Horse Farm near Mooreland, Ind. ofthe formation of a primitive aristocracy (Nocete 2000), initiating aprocess that was to develop throughout the second half of the thirdmillennium BC and the first centuries of the second millennium BC andextend to the metallurgical settlements peripheral to the GuadalquivirValley (Nocete 2001, 2005; Nocete et al. 2005b). Conclusion The south-western Iberian peninsula in the third millennium BC ismarked by the sudden appearance of copper-working settlements,specialised and dependent on the mining districts situated around thealluvial valleys (Guadalquivir and Guadiana), and large agriculturalcentres. Cabezo Jure (Huelva, Spain) located in the major miningdistrict of the Iberian Pyrite Belt, Tharsis (Tornos et al. 1998), isthe first to be documented and analysed in an intensive archaeologicalprogramme (Nocete 2004). Beyond identifying the existence of a specialised metallurgicalcommunity at the start of the third millennium BC, Cabezo Jure allows usto evaluate the social structures engendered by this situation. Atpresent, we do not know how and from which territorial and socialspheres the population of Cabezo Jure was derived. Yet thespecialisation, dependence and strategic and defensive location of thesettlement provide a clear contrast with the dispersed farmingcommunities which preceded it, which were contemporary with it and whichcontinued after its disappearance (Nocete 2001). It seems probable that Cabezo Jure and similar sites, highlyspecialised in copper production, were not the seed of social inequity,but rather its result. The rapid emergence of these sites at the startof the third millennium BC took advantage of a process of a socialdifferentiation that was initiated at the heart of agrarian societies.It sustained specialised production like the manufacture of thoseproducts of foreign origin present in the fortified place of Cabezo Jure(Nocete et al. 2004a), as well as the social groups to which the copperproducts were destined (Nocete et al. 2005b). Received: 8 March 2005: Revised: 14 September 2005; Accepted: 22October 2005 References ALEX, E., F. NOCETE, J.M. NIETO, R. SAEZ & M.R. BAYONA. 2004.Estudio del impacto ambiental de la metalurgia prehistorica en elAndevalo onubense: contaminacion de aguas, deforestacion y erosion, inF. Nocete (ed.) ODIEL: Proyecto de Investigacion Arqueologica para elanalisis de la desigualdad social en el Suroeste de la PeninsulaIberica: 325-41. Sevilla: Monografias de Arqueologia 19. Consejeria deCultura, Junta de Andalucia. AMBERT, P. 2003. 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SPIRO SPIRO Sliding Pulmonary Imaging for Respiratory Overview . 1998. The Filon Norteorebody (Tharsis, Iberian Pyrite Belt): a proximal low temperature shalehosted massive sulphide in a thin-skinned tectonic belt. MineralDeposita 33: 150-69. F. Nocete, Department of Prehistory and Archaeology. University ofHuelva University of Huelva, SpainThe University of Huelva is a young and high quality public Spanish institution, dedicated to higher educational programs and academic research activities. , Edif. Marie Curie Curie(kürē`), family of French scientists.Pierre Curie, 1859–1906, scientist, and his wife,Marie Sklodowska Curie, 1867–1934, chemist and physicist, b. . Campus del Carmen s/n. 21007 Huelva, Spain(Email: nocete@uhu.es)