The first direct evidence for the production of Maya Blue: rediscovery of a technology.

The first direct evidence for the production of Maya Blue: rediscovery of a technology. Introduction An unusual blue pigment applied to pottery, sculpture and murals,Maya Blue is '... one of the great technological and artisticachievements of Mesoamerica' (Miller & Martin 2004: 252). Usedpredominantly during the Classic and Postclassic periods (AD 300-1519)from northern Yucat n to highland Guatemala and central Mexico,production also appears to have survived into colonial rimes (CabreraGarrido 1969; Gettens 1955; 1962: 560; Haude 1998; Ortega et al. 2001a& b; Polette et al. 2000; Reyes-Valerio 1993; Sanchez de Rio et al.2004; Tagle et al. 1990; Torres 1988). Maya Blue was not based oncopper, ground lapis lazuli lapis lazuli(lăp`ĭs lăz`lē), gem, deep blue, violet, or greenish blue in color and usually flecked with yellow iron pyrites. or azurite azurite(ăzh`ərīt), blue mineral, the basic carbonate of copper, occurring in monoclinic crystals or masses that range from transparent to translucent and opaque. (Jose-Yacaman et al. 1996), butconsists of a unique pigment in which indigo is chemically bound to theclay mineral palygorskite (Cabrera Garrido 1969; Chianelli et al. 2005:133; Fois et al. 2003; Gettens 1955; 1962: 563; Giustetto et al. 2005;Hubbard et al. 2003; Kleber et al. 1967: 44-6; Ortega et al. 2001a:755-6). It is resistant to diluted mineral acids, alkalis, solvents,oxidants, reducing agents, moderate heat and biocorrosion and showslittle evidence of colour deterioration even after centuries of exposureto the harsh tropical climate of southern Mesoamerica (Fois et al. 2003;Gettens 1962; Sanchez del Rio et aL 2006). [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] These characteristics and the widespread use of Maya Blue in ritualcontexts have stimulated the interest of archaeologists, chemists andmaterial scientists since the pigment was first identified by Merwin(1931) on the murals of the Temple of the Warriors at Chichen Itza(Figure 1). Its use in ritual contexts implies that it was highlyvalued, and this inference is borne out by its association withsacrifice, priests and Maya deities, especially the rain god Chaak(Arnold 2005; Reyes-Valerio 1993: 86; Tozzer 1957: 203). Indeed, therecent exhibition The Courtly Art of the Ancient Maya features pottery,murals and sculpture with headdresses, clothing and jewellery paintedwith Maya Blue (Miller & Martin 2004). The production of Maya Blue Two kinds of approaches have hitherto provided information aboutthe production of Maya Blue: experimental approaches and contextualapproaches. Experiments have produced a number of key results (CabreraGarrido 1969; Littmann 1982; Reyes-Valerio 1993; Torres 1988). First,sustained low heat (<150[degrees]C) is critical in order to createthe pigment, fix its colour and acquire its unique chemical and physicalstability (Torres 1988; Van Olphen 1966). Second, very little indigo isnecessary to make Maya Blue; the pigment can be synthesised using only0.5-2 per cent indigo (Hubbard et al. 2003; Sanchez dei Rio et al. 2006;Van Olphen 1966). Experiments using sepiolite, a clay mineral similar topalygorskite, failed to produce a stable Maya Blue-like pigment with allof its unique characteristics (Sanchez dei Rio et al. 2006). Contextual approaches to Maya Blue have also provided insight aboutits production. Data from the contemporary Maya have revealed probablesources of the palygorskite used in the pigment. Using a triangulation triangulation:see geodesy. The use of two known coordinates to determine the location of a third. Used by ship captains for centuries to navigate on the high seas, triangulation is employed in GPS receivers to pinpoint their current location on earth. of ethnographic techniques and data from X-ray diffraction provided byclay mineralogist B.F. Bohor, Arnold demonstrated the link between theYucatec Maya semantic category sak lu um and palygorskite (Arnold 1967;1971). The contemporary Maya of Ticul and Sacalum recognise the uniqueproperties of palygorskite, refer to it as sak lu'um (whiteearth'), and use it for pottery temper as well as for medicinalpurposes (Arnold 1967; 1971; 2005; Arnold & Bohor 1975; 1976; Folan1969). Evidence suggests that sources of sak lu'um in or nearSacalum and Ticul were likely pre-Columbian sources of palygorskite(Arnold 2005; Arnold & Bohor 1975; 1976; Folan 1969). The name ofthe town of Sacalum itself is a hispanicised form of the Yucatec Mayaphrase, sak lu'um, and the town has been so named since before theconquest (Folan 1969). By 1968, massive amounts (>600 [m.sup.3]) ofpalygorskite had been removed from a mine at the bottom of the cenote ce��no��te?n.A water-filled limestone sinkhole of the Yucat��n.[American Spanish, from Yucatec ts'onot.] inthe centre of the town (Arnold & Bohor 1975; 1976), and informantsreported that during the last third of the twentieth century, the cenotecontinued as a source of sak lu'um that was sold widely formedicinal purposes (Arnold 2005). Archaeological evidence for theantiquity of mining comes from both Ticul and Sacalum. A TerminalClassic site formerly existed on top of the sak lu'um source(Yo' Sah Kab) near Ticul (Arnold 2005), and Folan (1969) foundTerminal Classic pottery at the bottom of the cenote and near theentrance to the mine. A second contextual approach focuses on the other component of MayaBlue--indigo. One species of the indigo plant (Indigofera suffruticosa)is widespread in the Americas and probably has a pre-Columbian origin.Mexico, however, has more species than anywhere else (Arnold 1987) andthis diversity indicates a long time depth of the plant in Mesoamerica.The Yucatec Maya recognise the indigo plant, call it ch'ooh, andlike palygorskite, use it for medicinal purposes (Arnold 2005). A thirdcontextual approach involves some understanding of copal incense. Copal(called pom in Yucatec Maya) comes from the sap of a tree (Protium protium/pro��ti��um/ (pro��te-um) see hydrogen. pro��ti��umn.See hydrogen-1.protiumthe mass 1 isotope of hydrogen, symbol 1 copalamong others, Tozzer 1957: 209) and was also a critical symbol withpractical significance. Among some contemporary Maya groups, copal islinked with maize as a foodstuff for the gods. Because it was gatheredas a sap from a tropical tree, it was regarded as the blood of the treeand was imbibed by the gods in the form of smoke when it was burned asincense (Stross 2007). Just as maize was the staple of the Maya diet, socopal was the staple of deities. Copal was also used for medicinalpurposes (Stross 2007). All of these data suggest that Maya Blue may have been createdritually by burning incense using a mixture of copal, palygorskite andsome part of the indigo plant (Arnold 2005). This inference is supportedby the existence of the pigment on a ball of copal from Tikal and onefrom the Cenote of Sacrifice at Chichen Itza (Cabrera Garrido 1969:20-2; Shepard 1962; Shepard & Gottlieb 1962; Shepard & Pollock1971), and on fragments of incense burners and along with soot and copalthat came from the Aztec market site of Tlateloco in what is now MexicoCity (Cabrera Garrido 1969: 15). Copal incense burns slowly and wouldexplain how sustained heat was used to create the pigment. Further,creating Maya Blue by burning incense, such as making offerings to theMaya rain god Chaak, would imbue im��bue?tr.v. im��bued, im��bu��ing, im��bues1. To inspire or influence thoroughly; pervade: work imbued with the revolutionary spirit.See Synonyms at charge.2. this pigment with thrice thrice?adv.1. Three times.2. In a threefold quantity or degree.3. Archaic Extremely; greatly. its symbolicpower, once for the healing properties of its constituents, twice forcreating its unique colour that is symbolic of deity (Arnold 2005) andthrice for providing food for the gods. Indeed, the rich colour of MayaBlue is similar to the azure blue of the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico Noun 1. Gulf of Mexico - an arm of the Atlantic to the south of the United States and to the east of MexicoGolfo de MexicoAtlantic, Atlantic Ocean - the 2nd largest ocean; separates North and South America on the west from Europe and Africa on the east and might symbolise the transubstantiation transubstantiation:see Eucharist. transubstantiationIn Christianity, the change by which the bread and wine of the Eucharist become in substance the body and blood of Jesus, though their appearance is not altered. (and perhaps the incarnation)of Chaak, much like the bread and wine in the Roman Catholic mass isbelieved to become the body and blood of Christ The Blood of Christ in Christian theology refers to (a) the physical blood actually shed by Jesus Christ on the Cross, and the salvation which Christianity teaches was accomplished thereby; and (b) the Eucharistic wine used at Holy Communion Salvation . Consequently, the ritual combination of three materials used forhealing suggests that the actual performance of the creation of MayaBlue was very significant and might have had great symbolic valuecritical to the meaning of the pigment (Arnold 2005). Just as itelicited the social memory of the healing power of sak lu'um,ch'ooh and pom for the priests and their constituents, it alsomaterialised the presence of the rain god Chaak at the end of the ritualby the creation of a pigment that symbolised the most valued commodityrequired to sustain human life--water. Feeding the rain god with incensepresumably pre��sum��a��ble?adj.That can be presumed or taken for granted; reasonable as a supposition: presumable causes of the disaster. would cause him to respond positively. Just as rain bringshealing to the parched land of Yucatan after the rainless dry season, sothe ritual feeding of Chaak using a combination of three healingconstituents (indigo, palygorskite and copal incense) brought the raingod into the presence of the congregants by the creation of Maya Bluebecause he had been properly fed. Analysis of a bowl from Chichen Itza During the course of selecting samples for another project, Arnoldwas perusing a list of objects from the artefact See artifact. catalogue of the FieldMuseum of Natural History Field Museum of Natural History,at Chicago, Ill. Founded in 1893 through the gifts of Marshall Field and others, it was first known as the Columbian Museum of Chicago and later (1943–66) as the Chicago Natural History Museum. in Chicago and noticed a label: 'Blue oncopal in bowl'. Recognising that this context was precisely thatwhich Cabrera Garrido (1969) believed to be one of the scenarios forcreating Maya Blue, Arnold and Williams went to examine the bowl and itscontents (Figures 2 and 3). Arnold noted that the white flecks on theunderside of the copal looked like the palygorskite that he had seen inYucatan. The bowl (20cm in diameter and 10cm high) was a tripod pottery bowldredged from the Sacred Cenote ar Chichen Itzi by E.H. Thompson in 1904.Close inspection of the underside of the copal from the bowl revealedthat blue and white phase fields were dispersed throughout the sample.Scanning electron microscopy revealed the presence of indigo andpalygorskite, the two main components of Maya Blue. Secondary electronand backscattered electron images of the white component showed fibrousor needle-like features analogous to the structure of palygorskite.Energy dispersive dispersive/dis��per��sive/ (-per��siv)1. tending to become dispersed.2. promoting dispersion. X-ray analysis of both components showed compositionsthat were approximately analogous to previous experimental data, withone carbon peak-dominated spectrum indicating the presence of an organicmaterial, likely indigo. These data suggest that the blue and whitefields on this offering were an incomplete attempt to produce Maya Bluefrom indigo and palygorskite by burning (or heating) copal incense. Theanalyses suggest that this copal offering represented an attempt toproduce Maya Blue that was interrupted by its being thrown into theSacred Cenote (for details see Technical Appendix, below). [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] Context The Sacred Cenote (Figure 4) was particularly important because itwas the location where many offerings were made to the rain god Chaak(Tozzer 1957: 195-6, 203). Bishop Landa, a Spanish priest in Yucatanbetween 1549 and 1563, mentions that offerings such as human sacrificesand '... a great many other things, like precious stones and thingswhich they prized' were thrown into this sacred well (Tozzer 1941:180-811; 1957: 191). Blue paint was a significant part of this ritual,and blue was painted on objects and on the altar (Figure 5) upon whichhuman sacrifices were made (Tozzer 1957:211). Landa also provides achilling description of how human victims were stripped and painted bluebefore being thrown backwards on the altar where their beating heart wascut from their body (Tozzer 1941: 117-9; 1957: 107, 203). A massive number of artefacts were recovered from the cenote thatincluded pottery, copal incense, wood, gold, rubber, jade and leather(Coggins 1992; Tozzer 1957). Except for fragments of pottery, copalincense was the most frequent item recovered and the amount of incensebespeaks the significance that it played in the ritual offerings at thecenote (Coggins & Ladd 1992; Tozzer 1957: 198). Most important, manyof these copal offerings had blue paint on them. Both Tozzer(1941:117-8) and Coggins and Ladd (1992: 353) believe that this paintwas indigo, but it was more likely Maya Blue. [FIGURE 3 OMITTED] The material in the bowl analysed here was part of a largercollection of 160 copal offerings recovered from the cenote by EdwardThompson (Coggins & Ladd 1992: 345-6). About half of these offeringswere in their original containers. Ceramic bowls were the most commoncontainers, and 50 of the copal offerings were in their original bowls.Edward Thompson's notes say 'Both vessels and incense [were]apparently painted blue before being thrown into the tzonot'(Coggins 1992: 16). Were they painted blue, or was the blue created byburning incense before being thrown into the sacred well? The datapresented here suggest that attempts at the creation of Maya Blueoccurred before the offerings were thrown into the cenote. [FIGURE 4 OMITTED] In his narrative of the dredging operation, Thompson mentions anunderwater layer of blue silt that is also shown in his profile ofstrata in the cenote (Tozzer 1957: 192). Using a scale based on themeasurements in Thompson's profile, this blue silt forms a layer14-15 feet thick (about 4.5 to 5.0m) below a layer of mud at the bottomof the cenote (Coggins 1992: 14; Tozzer 1957: Figure 707). How did thesilt get there? Because Maya Blue is a post-fire fugitive paint, it iseasily removed, when in water, from pottery, any other material and themore than 100 people who were apparently dispatched into the cenote overtime (Hooton 1940; Anda Alanis 2007). All of the copal offerings looklike they had been heated to the melting point because the copal took onthe shape of each bowl. Tozzer, in fact, notes that other artefacts alsowere heated (Tozzer 1957: 197). To account further for the melting ofthe copal, Thompson believed that there was a large incense burner inthe structure at the edge of the cenote (Figure 6) with air holes suchthat the offerings were heated before they were thrown into the depthsbelow (Tozzer 1957: 192). If the copal offerings were also burned, mostof the soot would have washed off in the plunge into the water.Furthermore, artefacts dredged from the cenote were washed with clearwater after they were recovered. Even so, some soot remained on them. The ceramic bowl reported here is a Mayapan unslipped ware bowlthat is almost identical in shape to a bowl that Robert Smith (1971)illustrated in his classic work, The Pottery of Mayapan. The latter alsocomes from Chichen Itza, and he says it was 'painted blue allover' (Smith 1971, Vol. 2: 44, Figure 29y). Blue paint, Smith says,was almost exclusively associated with ceremonial pottery (Smith 1971,Vol. 1: 44). The typological analysis of all of the pottery dredged from thecenote reveals that 90 per cent (100 per cent = 100 vessels) of whole ornearly whole bowls were, like the bowl described here, Mayapan wares ofthe Tases phase (Ball & Ladd 1992: 202). Chronologically, thesewares occur in the Middle to Late Postclassic period (Coggins & Ladd1992: 237), are associated with the Postclassic site of Mayapan and dateto approximately AD 1300-1460 when the influence of Chichen Itza haddeclined (Ball & Ladd 1992: 192; Coggins & Ladd 1992: 237; Smith1971). Chichen Itza was still important, however, and according to thesixteenth-century Spanish priest, Diego de Landa Diego de Landa Calder��n (17 March, 1524 – 1579) was Bishop of Yucat��n. He left future generations with a mixed legacy in his writings, which contain much valuable information on pre-Columbian Maya civilization, and his actions which destroyed much of that civilization's , it was a place ofpilgrimage where offerings to the rain god Chaak were made in the SacredCenote even during the early colonial period (Tozzer 1941 [1566]: 54,109; 1957: 199). This historical narrative is confirmed by Smith whosays that: 'In point of fact Chichen Itza harbored a very largecollection of Tases phase pottery, most of which was found not only onthe surface but for the most part on top of fallen construction'(Smith 1971, Vol. 2: 206). It thus appears that most of the complete ornearly complete offering bowls recovered from the cenote (including theone described here) were offered to the rain god during a rime whenChichen Itza was ar least partially abandoned. The use of Mayapan waresas cenote offerings thus verifies the historical relationship betweenMayapan and Chichen Itza during the last half of the Postclassic perioddescribed by Landa. [FIGURE 5 OMITTED] Conclusion The analysis of the blue and white materials in the copal offeringbowl reported here demonstrates the components and also the ritualperformance that had produced the characteristic blue colour. Thiscolour was so important to the Maya of the late Postclassic period thattheir sacrificial cenote acquired a deposit of blue silt more than 4mthick. [FIGURE 6 OMITTED] The project also has emphasised the potential rewards of scientificwork on old museum collections and shown that scientific analysis isnecessary but not sufficient for the understanding of museum objects.Such studies also require documentary, ethnographic and experimentalresearch to establish their original context of use. Who knows how many more ancient technologies can be understoodthrough the application of modern technologies to museum collectionsusing the holistic approach holistic approachA term used in alternative health for a philosophical approach to health care, in which the entire Pt is evaluated and treated. See Alternative medicine, Holistic medicine. utilised here? A detailed examination of the56 bowls of copal that Edward Thompson dredged from the Sacred Cenote,for example, can still yield more information and perhaps show how theindigo plant was used in the preparation of Maya Blue. Coggins and Ladd(1992: 346) mention that three copal offerings have clear leafimpressions on the bottom, and many have less clear vegetal vegetal/veg��e��tal/ (vej��e-t'l) vegetative (defs. 1, 2, and 3). veg��e��taladj.1. Of, relating to, or characteristic of plants.2. impressions.They believe that these offerings may have been worked on a bed ofleaves but these leaf and vegetal impressions need to be identified;they might be portions of the indigo plant used in the creation of MayaBlue. Further, it might be possible to identify plant materials foundwithin these copal offerings themselves. Needless to say, the use ofmuseum objects to solve the mysteries of the production of Maya Blue hasonly just begun. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Dr Laurence D. Marks, Professor ofMaterials Science and Engineering Materials science and engineeringA multidisciplinary field concerned with the generation and application of knowledge relating to the composition, structure, and processing of materials to their properties and uses. at Northwestern University, for hishelp on this study. The expense of preparing this article was funded byWheaton College Department of Sociology Noun 1. department of sociology - the academic department responsible for teaching and research in sociologysociology departmentacademic department - a division of a school that is responsible for a given subject and Anthropology, Alvaro Nieves,Chair, and a Wheaton College Norris Aldeen Grant to the senior author.We are grateful to George Pierce, John Weinstein, Linda Nicholas andBill Koechling who worked on the images used in this article. BeckySeifried and Susan Crickmore provided editorial and bibliographic help.The authors also wish to thank Elizabeth Graham whose comments improvedthe article considerably. [FIGURE 7 OMITTED] Technical Appendix Fine grains were removed from the blue and white components for SEMand energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX EDX Energy Dispersive X-Ray (Spectroscopy)EDX Electronic Data ExchangeEDX Extended Data RegisterEDX Event-Driven Executive (IBM Series/1 OS)EDX Event-Based Data Exchange (UPNet)). The LEO EVO EVO Evolution (Mitsubishi)EVO Extra Virgin Olive OilEVO Evolution Engine (Harley-Davidson Motorcycles)EVO Emergency Vehicle OperatorEVO Escape Velocity: Override (computer game)60 ScanningElectron Microscope scan��ning electron microscopen. Abbr. SEMAn electron microscope that forms a three-dimensional image on a cathode-ray tube by moving a beam of focused electrons across an object and reading both the electrons scattered by the object and at the Field Museum of Natural History was used tocapture secondary electron and backscattered electron images of the blueand white grains from the copal. Secondary electron images were takenunder variable pressure settings (0.33 torr torr (tōr),n a unit of pressure equivalent to 0.001316 atmosphere; named after the physicist Torricelli. Also calledmm Hg. for blue grains, 0.86 torrfor white grains) at accelerating voltages of 20kV, beam currents of 22or 29 pA, working distances of 11 or 12mm and at 668 magnification.Backscattered electron images were taken under high-vacuum settings([1.69e.sup.-5] torr for blue grains, [1.72e.sup.-5] torr for whitegrains) at accelerating voltages of 20.23kV, beam currents of 194 pA,working distances of 11 or 12mm and at 668 magnification (Figures 7 and8). [FIGURE 8 OMITTED] Secondary electron (SE) images of the blue and white grainsprovided high resolution detail of the sample surfaces, andbackscattered electron (BSE See Bombay Stock Exchange. BSESee Boston Stock Exchange (BSE). ) images provided a visual representation oftheir contrasting compositions. The SE image of the white grains showedfibrous or needle-like structures on the surface that are analogous tothe structure of palygorskite (e.g. Fernandez et al. 1999: 5253; Ortega2001a: 754; 2001b: 2230, Figure 2a-b; Sanchez del Rio et al. 2004:Figure 6b). The BSE image of the white grains (Figure 7) showed fibrousand needle-like structures that confirmed the presence of palygorskitebut also revealed a flake-like material also seen in the SE and BSEimages of the blue grains. In addition, a small amount of extraneousmaterial was dispersed throughout the sample surface. The SE image andBSE image of the blue grains (Figure 8) showed a flake-like structure ofnearly homogeneous composition. The Hitachi S-3500 Variable-Pressure Scanning Electron Microscopein the Electron Probe Instrumentation Center (EPIC) at NorthwesternUniversity was used for X-ray elemental analysis. EDX detects thefrequency and intensity of emitted X-rays generated by the SEM'selectron beam and provides data plotted as counts and intensity. The PGT PGT Public Guardian and TrusteePGT Procuradoria Geral do Trabalho (Brazil general attorney's office of the work)PGT Pistol Grip ToolPGT Post Graduate TrainingPGT Princeton Gamma-Tech, Inc. Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) analyser generated spectra identifying themajor components in both the blue and white phase fields acquired overof a period of 100 seconds. The EDX spectra provided a qualitative analysis Qualitative AnalysisSecurities analysis that uses subjective judgment based on nonquantifiable information, such as management expertise, industry cycles, strength of research and development, and labor relations. of the compositionof the blue and white grains. The spectrum of the blue grains showed thelargest K-alpha peak as carbon, with smaller peaks for oxygen,aluminium, silicon, phosphorus, sulphur and calcium. Since experimentalsyntheses of Maya Blue indicated that the pigment contained 2 per centor less indigo, the high carbon peak suggests that the blue portion isindigo rather than Maya Blue because Maya Blue is a clay-organic complexand its carbon peak would be expected to be much smaller. Furthermore,in other studies, transmission electron microscopy images (CabreraGarrido 1969:21; Kleber et al. 1967: 46) and SEM images (Ortega et al.200la: Figure 6c; Ortega et al. 2001b: 2230) reveal that Maya Blueretains the needle-like structure of palygorskite, and other studiesaffirm that the unique structure of palygorskite gives the pigment itsunusual properties (Chiari et al. 2003; Fois et al. 2003; Reinen et al.2004; Sanchez dei Rio et al. 2006). The blue grains thus appear to beindigo rather than Maya Blue. The smaller peaks of the EDX spectra canbe attributed to either (a) the simultaneous identification of aseparate phase field below the surface, or (b) parts of the indigo plantor the copal that may be the extraneous material seen in the SE imagesof the blue grains. The spectra of the white grains showed the largest K-alpha peak forsilicon, second-largest peak for aluminium and smaller peaks formagnesium, calcium, sulphur, potassium, calcium, carbon, phosphorus andiron. Palygorskite is an aluminium and magnesium silicate silicate,chemical compound containing silicon, oxygen, and one or more metals, e.g., aluminum, barium, beryllium, calcium, iron, magnesium, manganese, potassium, sodium, or zirconium. Silicates may be considered chemically as salts of the various silicic acids. (Galan 1996;Sanchez del Rio et al. 2006:117), but in some molecular models of themineral, iron and calcium may also substitute for some of the aluminiumand magnesium ions (Fernandez et al. 1999: 5247-8). In other models,magnesium replaces the aluminium, and calcium and iron replace themagnesium (Carroll 1970: 42). The combined EDX spectra are relatively consistent with the X-raymicroanalysis spectrum of Maya Blue reported by Jose-Yacaman and SerraPuche (1995), wherein the highest peaks were associated with oxygen,silicon and carbon and magnesium using transmission electron microscopy(TEM TEM1. transmission electron microscope.2. triethylenemelamine.3. transmissible encephalopathy of mink. ) and electron energy loss spectroscopy In electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) a material is exposed to a beam of electrons with a known, narrow range of kinetic energies. Some of the electrons will undergo inelastic scattering, which means that they lose energy and have their paths slightly and randomly deflected. (EELS). The similarities inthe components identified in both EDX spectra suggest that the whitegrains are palygorskite (Table 1) but they may also contain some residuefrom the copal incense and/or from the remains of the indigo plantand/or its derivatives that are seen as the extraneous material in thescanning images (Figures 7 and 8). Since the occurrence of indigo and palygorskite account for the EDXspectra, it appears that the palygorskite and indigo remaineduncombined. Further, much greater size of the white phase fields thanthe blue fields reflects the greater proportion of palygorskite in theMaya Blue recipe.Table 1. Comparison of Maya Blue component compositions from JoseYacaman et al. (1995) and those done by Branden in the analysesreported here. Jose-Yacamin Analyses reported and Serra Analyses here Indigo Puche (1995) reported here and some Maya Blue Palygorskite Palygorskite (?)Major peak O Si C elements Si, C AlMinor peak Al, Mg, Na Ca, Mg Ca, O elements Fe, S Fe, K, O, STrace elements Ca C, P Al, P, S, Si Received: 13 February 2007; Accepted: 23 April 2007; Revised: 31August 2007 References ANDA ALANIS, G. DE. 2007. Sacrifice and ritual body mutilation MutilationSee also Brutality, Cruelty.Mutiny (See REBELLION.)Absyrtushacked to death; body pieces strewn about. [Gk. Myth.: Walsh Classical, 3]Agatha, St.had breasts cut off. [Christian Hagiog. inPostclassical post��clas��si��cal?adj.Of, relating to, or being a time following a classical period, as in art or literature. Maya society: taphonomy ta��phon��o��my?n.1. The study of the conditions and processes by which organisms become fossilized.2. The conditions and processes of fossilization. of the human remains from ChichenItza's Cenote Sagrado, in V. Tiesler & A. Cucina (ed.) NewPerspectives on Human Sacrifice and Ritual Body Treatments in AncientMaya Society: 190-208. New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of : Springer. ARNOLD, D.E. 1967. Sak lu'um in Maya culture and its possiblerelationship to Maya Blue (Department of Anthropology Research Reports2). Urbana (IL): University of Illinois University of Illinois may refer to: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (flagship campus) University of Illinois at Chicago University of Illinois at Springfield University of Illinois system It can also refer to: . --1971. Ethnomineralogy of Ticul, Yucatan potters: etics and emics.American Antiquity 36: 20-40. --1987. The evidence for pre-Columbian indigo in the New World.Antropologia y Tecnica 2: 53-84. Mexico, D.F.: Universidad NacionalAutOnoma de Mexico. --2005. Maya Blue and palygorskite: a second possible pre-Columbiansource. Ancient Mesoamerica 16: 51-62. ARNOLD, D.E. & B.F. BOHOR. 1975. Attapulgite and Maya Blue: anancient mine comes to light. Archaeology 28 (January): 23-9. --1976. An ancient attapulgite mine in Yucatan. Katunob 8(4) (June1974): 25-34. ARNOLD, D.E., H. NEFF, M.D. GLASCOCK & R.J. SPEAKMAN. 2007.Sourcing the palygorskite used in Maya Blue: a pilot study comparing theresults of INAA and LA-ICP-MS. Latin American Antiquity 18 (1): 44-58. BALL, J. & J. LADO LADO Latino American Dawah OrganizationLADO Los Angeles District OfficeLADO Louisiana Association of Dispensing OpticiansLADO Launch Anomaly and Disposal OperationsLADO Ligii Pentru Ap?rarea Drepturilor Omului (Romania). 1992. Ceramics, in C.C. 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Maya Blue: a clay-organic pigment? Science154: 645-6. Dean E. Arnold (1), Jason R. Branden (2), Patrick Ryan Williams(3), Gary M. Feinman (3) & J. P. Brown (3) (1) Department of Sociology-Anthropology, Wheaton College, Wheaton,Illinois 60187, USA (Email: dean.e. arnold@wheaton.edu) (2) Department of Materials Science and Engineering, NorthwesternUniversity, Evanston, Illinois, USA (Email:jason. r.branden@gmail.com) (3) Department of Anthropology, Field Museum of Natural History,Chicago, Illinois, USA (Email: rwilliams@ fmnh.org) (3) Department of Anthropology, Field Museum of Natural History,Chicago, Illinois, USA (Email: gfeinman@ fmnh.org) (3) Department of Anthropology, Field Museum of Natural History,Chicago, Illinois, USA (Email: jpbrown@ fmnh.org)