The epi-Palaeolithic of Okuzini cave (SW Anatolia) and its mobiliary art.

The epi-Palaeolithic of Okuzini cave (SW Anatolia) and its mobiliary art. Late and Epi-Paleolithic sequence are well known from field workand publications in southeast Europe and the Levant Levant(ləvănt`)[Ital.,=east], collective name for the countries of the eastern shore of the Mediterranean from Egypt to, and including, Turkey. . Current research inAnatolia promises to shed new light on the vast region that connectsthese two areas. At Okuzini cave a detailed sequence of TerminalPleistocene and Early Holocene assemblages contributes greatly to ourunderstanding. Okuzini cave was found add first excavated during the 1950s by K.Kokten (1963). On the cave's interior, Kokten discovered a rockengraving which seemed to represent wild cattle, which gave the cave itsname (Okuz means ox in Turkish). During these excavations, Koktenremoved a large portion of the deposits from inside the cave whichcontained the remains of numerous occupations. More recently, a small test excavation was carried out, limited tostraightening a 1-m section by removing about 10-20 cm of the depositsfrom the face of the section, and carried out by a team from theUniversity of Tubingen in co-operation with one of the authors (lY) fromthe University of Ankara (Albrecht et al. 1992). Since 1989, fieldworkhas continued through a joint project conducted by the University ofLiege liegeIn European feudal society, an unconditional bond between a man and his overlord. Thus, if a tenant held estates from various overlords, his obligations to his liege lord, to whom he had paid “liege homage,” were greater than his obligations to the other and the University of Ankara. Okuzini cave is situated only a few metres above the level of thealluvial plain Noun 1. alluvial plain - a flat resulting from repeated deposits of alluvial material by running wateralluvial flatflat - a level tract of land; "the salt flats of Utah" in the foothills of the Taurus mountains (Figure 1). M.Pawlikowski's study (Yalcinkaya et al. in press) indicates that thecave was first opened during the Upper Pleistocene after a small riverdeviated from its main karstic channel, which now appears as a karsticspring. Following the drying of the cave, a major rockfall rock��fall?n.A fall of rocks, as from a cliff. of largelimestone blocks in the cave particularly affected the entrance and theterrace. The collapsed blocks and sloping walls limited the spaceavailable for human use and promoted certain spatial subdivisions whichthe current excavations hope to expose (Figure 2). Stratigraphy stratigraphy,branch of geology specifically concerned with the arrangement of layered rocks (see stratification). Stratigraphy is based on the law of superposition, which states that in a normal sequence of rock layers the youngest is on top and the oldest on the From the exposed stratigraphy, it seems that the accumulationinside the cave began on a level of collapsed rocks and was rather rapid(in Table 1 numerous [C.sup.14] dates provide the age of the deposits asrecorded in the sections in Figures 3 & 5). The sediments wereintroduced mainly as detritus detritus/de��tri��tus/ (de-tri��tus) particulate matter produced by or remaining after the wearing away or disintegration of a substance or tissue. de��tri��tusn. pl. from the plateau and the slopes above thecave through a natural chimney at the back of the cave's roughlyrectangular chamber, and through the numerous cracks in the bedrock.Human occupations, which seem to have been nearly continuous,contributed greatly to the rapid accumulation of sediment by theintroduction of large quantities of organic matters such as firewood, aswell as activities like knapping and dumping of animal bones. Numerousfire-places dot the stratigraphy from the lower levels to the top(Figures 3-4). Schematically, the deposits represent three major ensembles. Theseprobably mark changes in the rate of accumulation as well as shifts inhuman behaviour. Post-depositional effects include the climaticfluctuations which marked the late Pleistocene and early Holocene. Inparticular, one should note the increasing wetness at the top of thesequence.* The lower ensemble seems to have accumulated in a relatively humidand cold environment. The sediment, mainly red in colour, due to thelarge amount of clay, contains some small angular limestone fragments.Hearths are not always well preserved; many seem to have undergonepost-depositional processes and now appear as black and white striationsencapsulated within the clayey deposits. * The middle ensemble is amajor concentration and accumulation of angular rock fragments mixedwith the remains of human activities including bones, lithics, mobiliaryart, charcoal and land-snail shells. The heterogeneity in the size ofthe limestone blocks seems to indicate that, at least in part, they weretransported to the site by humans. The large quantities of kitchendebris, containing numerous remains of Helix sp., resembles in a verygeneral way shell middens of the latest European hunter-gatherers. Thereis only rare evidence for hearths, and one burial (no. 2) within thisdeposit. * The uppermost ensemble is dusty, grey in color, and about 30cm in thickness. Within it, several pits have been recognized, and atleast one burial of proto-historic age (no. 1). There is a clearassociation between the numerous sherds and a polished axe as well as amicrolithic mi��cro��lith?n. ArchaeologyA very small blade made of flaked stone and used as a tool, especially in the European Mesolithic Period.mi assemblage. This entity is related to the Neolithic or theChalcolithic period of the region.In general, the stratigraphy of most of the deposits seems quitehorizontal and therefore relatively easy to excavate, althoughcontinuing water seepage has caused the accumulation of calcitic cal��cite?n.A common crystalline form of natural calcium carbonate, CaCO3, that is the basic constituent of limestone, marble, and chalk. Also called calcspar. crustsand concretions. Lithic lith��ic?1?adj.Consisting of or relating to stone or rock.Adj. 1. lithic - of or containing lithium2. lithic - relating to or composed of stone; "lithic sandstone" industries and fauna The Okuzini lithic and faunal sequence was sub-divided by combiningstratigraphic stra��tig��ra��phy?n.The study of rock strata, especially the distribution, deposition, and age of sedimentary rocks.strat evidence with the preliminary analysis of the lithicassemblages. While examining the techno-typological features, one ofauthors (J-ML) discerned a few shifts that enabled a tentativesub-division into four phases. All the lithic assemblages were manufactured from cobbles cob��ble?1?n.1. A cobblestone.2. Geology A rock fragment between 64 and 256 millimeters in diameter, especially one that has been naturally rounded.3. cobbles See cob coal.tr. of localflint collected in the environs of the site or brought from fartherafield. The following description of the four lithic phases from bottom totop, incorporates the preliminary results of faunal (see Tables 2-3 andFigures 6-7) and charcoal analysis (Yalcinkaya et al. in press). Thefaunal data were obtained on the material from a reference test (squaresK5c and K5d) which provided around 10,000 bones. Further analysisconfirmed the tendencies shown in tables and figures.Phase 1, units XII to VII, dated to 16,000-14,000 BC (see Table 1) [TABULAR DATA OMITTED]The lithic industry is characterized by the production of elongatedblades made of both imported and local radiolarite, shaped intostraight-backed points with a retouched base. Other tool types made onblades include endscrapers, burins, perforators and truncated blades(Figure 8). Among the projectiles we have included the elongatedtriangles and arched backed points. The fauna comprises ovicaprines(mostly goat and also sheep).Phase 2, units VI-V, dated to 14,000-13,000 BC (see Figure 8)Technically the blank production is the same as in the earlierassemblages but among the microlithic tools there are, in addition tothe triangles, also trapezes and lunates. Again, ovicaprines dominatethe fauna, but sheep is more present than in phase 1. During the first two phases, Units XII-V, the fauna comprisesmostly caprovines (80%) with secondary game (fallow deer fallow deera small, 150 lb, fawn deer with white spots and a white spot bordered with black on each buttock. Called also Dama dama. ) and smallerquantities of roe deer, red deer Red Deer, city, CanadaRed Deer,city (1991 pop. 58,134), S central Alta., Canada, on the Red Deer River. It developed as a trade and service center for a region of dairying and mixed farming. and hare. The macro-fauna reflects alandscape with gallery forests and steepcliffs (presence of goats),which is confirmed through charcoal analysis (Yalcinkaya et al. inpress). Grinding slabs and hammer-stones were found in this context. Ofspecial interest are the elements of body decoration including stonebeads and marine shells (Dentalium, Columbella rustica and Arculariagibossula).Phase 3, layers IV-Ia This is the gravelly grav��el��ly?adj.1. Of, full of, or covered with rock fragments or pebbles: a gravelly beach.2. Having a harsh rasping sound: a gravelly voice. units described above. Thecalibrated dates indicate an age in the range of 13,000-10,500 BC. Theexhausted cores, made of local raw material, demonstrate blades removedfrom various directions. The blade blanks are generally short, about 50mm in length. There is also evidence of the microburin technique used tomake an oblique snap. Geometric microliths, mostly lunates, triangles,and trapezes, are very common. The other forms include end-scrapers,retouched blades, perforators, notched blades (Figure 8). Products of abone industry are relatively abundant - awls, needles and spatulas.Fallow deer increases in frequency in the fauna, with the other forestanimals. Ovicaprines represent 60% of the remains, with a more equalpresence of goat and sheep. To this phase we can attribute the incised pebbles collected by K.Kokten. These incisions are sometimes of geometric pattern and sometimesof a more figurative appearance (Figures 9-10; Marshack in press and seebelow). It seems that burial no. 2 is associated with this phase.Phase 4, units 0-Ib This provided a range of calibrated radiocarbondates from 90000 to 6500 BC. The industry seems to be a mixture ofmicrolithic industries, plus a broken polished stone axe and numeroussherds (mainly associated with burial no. 1). Goat and sheep are equallyPresent, with a few forest animals.Figure 9. 1 Early rendering of an incised Epi-Palaeolithic pebblefrom Okuzini (earlier excavations, no stratigraphic data) based onnaked-eye observation, indicating an incorrect shape for the pebble anda crude representation of bovid bovidAny ruminant of the family Bovidae. Bovids have hollow, unbranched, permanently attached horns; they are grazing or browsing animals found in both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, most often in grasslands, scrublands, or deserts. Most species live in large herds. morphology. The suggested presence of afemale `buttocks' image is derived from female images of this typefound in the west European Magdalenian. (After Anati 1968; 1972). 2 Theincised composition on the same pebble as determined by microscopicstudy, indicating an accurate rendering of bovid morphology, anover-engraving or `renewal' of the muzzle, the addition of a secondeye, and repeated symbolic `killing' of then by a series ofschematic `weapons' incised into and around the animal. Thecomposition suggests a well-developed tradition of representation andsymbol use as well as hunting of the wild aurochs aurochs:see cattle. aurochsor aurochExtinct wild ox (Bos primigenius) of Europe, the species from which cattle are probably descended. The aurochs survived in central Poland until 1627. It was black, stood 6 ft (1. . 3 Schematic renditionof the engraved bovid muzzle, based on microscopic study. It indicatesan original circular eye, the addition of an oval eye, a `stream'issuing from the original eye, and the over-engraving of an accuratemuzzle by later crude, schematic additions. Comparable modes of imageuse are found among the mobiliary compositions and cave images of thelate west European Upper Palaeolithic (cf. Lascaux). The fauna of these two phases reflect an increased frequency offorest animals such as wild boar and fallow fallowa pale cream, light fawn, or pale yellow coat color in dogs. , red and roe deer. Thistrend is also recorded in the charcoal, which indicates the importanceof oak and ash. Iconography and symbol Bostanci's early report (1959) describing an incised bovid onthe wall at Okuzini and his discovery of a small pebble (5 cm) with anincised bovid in a level containing other forms of image and symbol (c.13,000 BC) is significant. First, bovid bones were absent from thefaunal remains. Second, early renderings of the bovid on the pebble(Figure 9.1) suggested an inaptitude in��ap��ti��tude?n.1. Lack of talent or ability.2. The quality or state of being inappropriate.Noun 1. for `art' and an unfamiliaritywith the species. Third, the female `buttocks' image seen in thecomposition seemed to link it with similar female imagery in thecontemporary Magdalenian cultures of western Europe. Microscopicanalysis reveals that these early suggestions were in error. The head,posture and morphological outline of the bovid had been renderedaccurately by a culture familiar with the species and having awell-developed tradition of depiction and image use (Figure 9.2). The supposed rear line of the `buttocks' is, actually, a crackin the stone. The bent arm of the human, a slender male, is thrusting aspear into the chest of the bovid. Both surrounding and upon the animalare schematic weapons, and `wounds' of a type documented in theimagery of diverse historical hunting cultures as well as in themobiliary materials and cave images of late Upper Paleolithic Europe.These abstract weapons and wounds, made in different styles, wereapparently incised at different times, perhaps subsequent to the initialdepiction of a killing by the human. The bovid was apparently`killed' symbolically a number of times. The head and muzzle were interesting (Figure 9.3). Therealistically rendered head and muzzle had been crudely, apparentlyhurriedly, over-engraved; the initial circular eye had had a second,oval eye added. The symbolic `renewal' or `re-use' of ananimal image by adding parts of that animal is profusely pro��fuse?adj.1. Plentiful; copious.2. Giving or given freely and abundantly; extravagant: were profuse in their compliments. documented inUpper Palaeolithic Europe (cf. Marshack 1969); Leroi-Gourhan &Allain 1979). The supposed `ladder' motif that was depicted on themuzzle are actually incised lines or 'tears' streaming fromthe circular eye. The analysis therefore documents the conjoint con��joint?adj.1. Joined together; combined: "social order and prosperity, the conjoint aims of government"John K. Fairbank.2. use of realistic andschematic, abstract imagery as well as different modes of image use. Thewild aurochs was clearly a symbolic animal, ritually killed and rituallyrenewed. It may be relevant that the bovid head is a crucial symbol atthe Early Neolithic site of Catal Huyuk within the Taurus mountainrange. A wild aurochs is also schematically depicted in a'Palaeolithic' engraving within the coastal Anatolian cave ofBeldibi, not far from Okuzini (Bostanci 1959). By contrast, the bovid isnot often depicted during the Epipalaeolithic, Natufian or earlyNeolithic of Israel, to the south. The complexity of these early Anatolian traditions is alsodocumented on a limestone pebble found in the same level at Okuzini.Heavily hand-worn and polished along the edges, it is incised withdifferent motifs and compositions on each face (Figures 10a, 10b).Microscopic analysis reveals that one face contains an accumulation of12 circles (slightly triangular) incised within an encompassing circularcontaining line. That containing line is extended to meet a ladder-like,motif consisting of sets and subsets of marks. Similar`ladder-like' motifs are profusely accumulated on the obverse face,where three blocks of descending horizontal rows are carefullypositioned on three different planes of the surface. Analysis of these`ladder-like' motifs indicates that they are composed ofaccumulated sets and sub-sets of marks, interspersed with `signs'and cueing-marks (Marshack in press). The sets, sub-sets, signs andcueing marks were apparently accumulated over a considerable period. Onthe first face, added to the initial accumulation of 12 circles arelater single circles incised by different points. The association ofcircles with sets and sub-sets of marks, represents an entirelydifferent form or mode of periodic ritual or symbolic marking than isfound on the bovid pebble, or within the compositions found at Karain. The `ladder-like' accumulation of sets and sub-sets occursalso in the Epipalaeolithic and Natufian of Israel. A huge block withthis motif was excavated from an early Natufian level at Hayonim in thesummer of 1994; a limestone plaque with this motif (still unpublished)was excavated on the Hayonim Terrace in the 1980s; a large limestoneblock with accumulations of the motif was excavated earlier withinHayonim cave (Belfer-Cohen 1991); a microscopic re-study of anEpipalaeolithic (Geometric Kebaran) pebble from the Israeli site ofUrkane-rub II, c. 14,500 b.p. (Hovers 1990), has documentedaccumulations of the motif on both faces. Unstudied limestone fragmentsfrom Hayonim cave that contain accumulations of the `ladder-like'motif are in the Archaeological Institute of Hebrew University inJerusalem. A variable iconography and diverse modes of periodic image use andassociation are also documented at the Epipalaeolithic cave of Karain,not far from Okuzini, the images include anthropomorphs, `macaroni'motifs (possibly water), and a symbolic human hand (Kokten 1961;Marshack in press). Variants of these motifs also appear in the laterCatal Huyuk imagery. The presence of a rich, variable iconography, andof diverse forms of periodic symbol use in the Mediterranean zone of theNear East before the beginnings of agriculture documents the presence ofsymbolling cultures that were far more complex than had been previouslyassumed on the basis of the numerical sparseness of artefacts and sites.That scarcity may be due to the sparsity of systematic excavation ofPalaeolithic sites when compared to the profuse pro��fuse?adj.1. Plentiful; copious.2. Giving or given freely and abundantly; extravagant: were profuse in their compliments. excavation of latercultures. It is of interest that recent excavations at Okuzini haveuncovered incised motifs on bone (J.M. Leotard pers. comm.). Discussion The human occupation of Okuzini cave began when the main chamberdried. The sequence, dated to 16,000-7000 BC, is composed ofanthropogenic an��thro��po��gen��ic?adj.1. Of or relating to anthropogenesis.2. Caused by humans: anthropogenic degradation of the environment. remains, washed-in sediments and calcareous rock fragmentsdetached from the walls and ceiling. The lithic industries representshifts from microlithic, non-geometric assemblages made on both localand imported raw materials, to assemblages dominated by geometricmicroliths made from the local radiolarite. The terminal occupationsinclude Neolithic-Alcolithic burials. The lithic industry of this phasebegins with microlithic assemblages containing Neolithic elements.Preliminary analysis of cementum cementum/ce��men��tum/ (se-men��tum) the bonelike connective tissue covering the root of a tooth and assisting in tooth support. ce��men��tumn.A bonelike substance covering the root of a tooth. increments indicate that the site wasprobably occupied most often in the spring/summer season. The Terminal Palaeolithic in the Antalya region is also known fromearlier excavated sites such as Beldibi, Belbasi and Karain B. Thereports from the first two indicate that the general regional sequencefollows what is known from other areas. non-microlithic industries arefollowed by a dominance of the geometric forms. Long-distancecomparisons with both the Balkans and the Levant reinforce thisobservation. However, since 13,000 bc, the Levant demonstrates adefinite cultural change with the emergence of the Natufian culture. Acomplex settlement pattern of sedentary hamlets and seasonal campscharacterizes the coastal ranges (e.g. Bar-Yosef & Belfer-Cohen1992), and marginal areas favoured a more mobile settlement pattern(e.g. Henry 1989); Byrd 1989). The shift is also reflected in thematerial culture: the production of bladelets is mostly replaced by theappearance of short flakes, sickle blades, small picks, the elaborationof bone and horn industry and the use of mortar and pestles. With regard to subsistence, the Natufian were gatherers of cereals,legumes LegumesA family of plants that bear edible seeds in pods, including beans and peas.Mentioned in: Cholesterol, Highlegumes (l , acorns and numerous other plants foods, as well as specializedhunters of gazelles and other species in more particular environments.During Late Natafian times we note in southeast Turkey early villagessuch as Hallam Cemi (Rosenberg & Davis 1992) that herald thebeginning of the Neolithic. Most of the layers at Okuzini are thus interpreted as the campresidues of foragers who hunted wild goat and sheep (and only rarelyother species) and collected plant food, the remains of which are yetnot identified. It seems that the advent of the Neolithic throughout theAnatolian plateau brought an end to the life-ways of these earlierforagers. ReferencesAlbrecht, G. et al. 1992. Late Pleistocene and early Holocene findsfrom Okuzini: a contribution to settlement history of the Bay ofAntalya, Turkey, Paleorient 18: 123-41. Anati, E. 1968. Anatolia'searliest art, Archaeology 21: 21-35. 1972. Arte Preistorica in Anatolia.Valcamonica: Edizioni del Centro. Studi Camuni 4. Bar-Yosef, O. andBelfer-Cohen A. 1992. From foraging to farming in the MediterraneanLevant, in A.B. Gebauer & T.D. Price (ed.), Transitions toagriculture in prehistozy: 21-8. Madison (WI): Prehistory prehistory,period of human evolution before writing was invented and records kept. The term was coined by Daniel Wilson in 1851. It is followed by protohistory, the period for which we have some records but must still rely largely on archaeological evidence to Press.Belfer-Cohen, A. 1991. Art items from Layer B, Hayonim Cave: a casestudy of art in a Natufian Context, in O. Bar-Yosef & F.R. Valla(ed.), The Natufian Culture in the Levant: 569-88 Ann Arbor (Ml):International Monographs in Prehistory. Bostanci, E.Y. 1959. Researcheson the Mediterranean coast of Anatolia: a new Palaeolithic site atBeldibi near Antalya, Anatolia 4(9): 129-67. Byrd, B. 1989. TheNatufian: settlement variability and economic adaptations in the Levantat the end of the Pleistocene, Journal of World Prehistory 3(2): 159-98.Henry, D.O. 1989. From foraging to agriculture: the Levant at the end ofthe Ice Age. Philadelphia (PA): University of Pennsylvania Press The University of Pennsylvania Press (or Penn Press) was originally incorporated with the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania on 26 March 1890, and the imprint of the University of Pennsylvania Press first appeared on publications in the closing decade of the nineteenth .Hovers, E. 1990. Art in the Levantine Le��vant?1?The countries bordering on the eastern Mediterranean Sea from Turkey to Egypt.Le Epi-Palaeolithic: an engravedpebble from a Kebaran Site in the Lower Jordan valley, CurrentAnthropology 31(3): 317-22. Kokten, I.K. 1961. Maras Maraş:see Kahramanmaraş, Turkey. ve AntalyaVilayetleinde sureli Dip Tarih Arastirmalari hakkinda kisa bir Rapor,Turk Arkeologji Dergisi 11(1): plates XXXV, XXXVI. 1963. Die Stellungvon Karain innerhalb der turkischen Vorgeschichte, Anatolia VII: 59-89.Leroi-Gourhan, A. & J. Allain. 1979. Lascaux inconnu inconnuNounCanad a whitefish of Arctic waters [French, literally: unknown] . Paris:Editions du CNRS CNRS Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (National Center for Scientific Research, France)CNRS Centro Nacional de Referencia Para El Sida (Argentinean National Reference Center for Aids). Marshack, A. 1969. Polesini, a re-examination of theengraved Upper Paleolithic mobiliary materials of Italy by a newmethodology, Rivista di Scienze Preistoriche In press. Okuzini:variabilite de catogorie dans l'imagerie symbolique,L'Anthropologie. Rosenberg, M. & M. Davis. 1992. Hallam CemiTepesi, an early aceramic Neolithic site in eastern Anatolia: somepreliminary observations concerning material culture, Anatolica 18:1-18. Yalcinkaya, I. et al. In press. Les occupations Tardiglaciaires dusite d'Okozini (Sud-ouest de la Turquie). Resultats priliminairesdes dernieres recherches. L'Aathropologie.