The emergence of pottery in Africa during the tenth millennium cal BC: new evidence from Ounjougou (Mali).

The emergence of pottery in Africa during the tenth millennium cal BC: new evidence from Ounjougou (Mali). The emergence of pottery in Asia and Africa Prehistoric populations in Japan, Siberia and China first began toproduce ceramic wares between 15 000 and 10 000 cal BC, more than 5000years earlier than in the Near East (Yasuda 2002:119-42; Kuzmin 2006).The emergence of pottery in East Asia is linked with the climaticamelioration at the Pleistocene-Holocene transition and coincides withthe appearance of lithic lith��ic?1?adj.Consisting of or relating to stone or rock.Adj. 1. lithic - of or containing lithium2. lithic - relating to or composed of stone; "lithic sandstone" industries marked by distinctive small bifacialarrowheads (Habu 2004: 26-36). This technological complex is usuallyregarded as an expression of the intensified exploitation of plant andanimal resources, often including small-seeded grasses (Richerson et al.2001). In Africa, the earliest pottery has been found in the largemountain massifs of the Central Sahara, in the Eastern Sahara and theNile Valley. About 30 [sup.14]C and luminescence luminescence,general term applied to all forms of cool light, i.e., light emitted by sources other than a hot, incandescent body, such as a black body radiator. dates have placed theemergence of ceramics in the Sahara and the Nile Valley between the endof the tenth and the beginning of the ninth millennium cal BC (Close1995: 24-7; Roset 2000; Jesse 2003: 40-42; Haaland 2007: 171-5). Thiscan be related to the sudden onset of a warmer and wetter climate in theEarly Holocene that enabled the resettling of the Sahara after thehyperarid phase of the last glacial maximum The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) refers to the time of maximum extent of the ice sheets during the last glaciation (the W��rm or Wisconsin glaciation), approximately 20,000 years ago. This extreme persisted for several thousand years. , the 'Ogolien'(Nelson et al. 2002: 97-9). The origin of the earliest African potteryis controversial and has been much discussed, with three hypotheticalscenarios proposed. The first theory places the emergence of ceramics inthe Nile Valley, based principally on the early exploitation of aquaticresources and wild cereals in this region (Haaland 1992: 47). The secondsuggests an origin somewhere south of the Sahara (Close 1995: 23), butuntil recently the oldest finds of sub-Saharan ceramics were only datedto the eighth millennium cal BC, both at Lothagam in Kenya (Robbins1974), and in the Ravin rav��inalso rav��en ?n.1. Voracity; rapaciousness.2. Something taken as prey.3. The act or practice of preying. du Hibou at Ounjougou in Mali, for Phase 2 ofits Holocene occupation sequence (Huysecom et al. 2004: 584). A thirdassumes that pottery was invented by relict RELICT. A widow; as A B, relict of C D. populations who had survivedin ecological refuge zones of the Sahara during the hyperarid LatePleistocene (Jesse 2003: 43). Within the framework of the internationalresearch project 'Palaeoenvironment and Human Population of WestAfrica' (Huysecom 2002), we have discovered ceramic sherds at thesite of Ravin de la Mouche at Ounjougou, associated with an originallithic industry and in stratified stratified/strat��i��fied/ (strat��i-fid) formed or arranged in layers. strat��i��fiedadj.Arranged in the form of layers or strata. contexts dated from before the end ofthe tenth millennium cal BC. This discovery throws new light on thechronology of the emergence of ceramics in Africa and its environmentalcontext. The Early Holocene sequence at Ounjougou The research programme at Ounjougou (14[degrees]20' N,3[degrees]30' W) began in 1997 and since 2004 has developed in twoparallel ravines, Ravin du Hibou and Ravin de la Mouche, where severalceramic sherds were discovered in layers that could be attributed to theinitial phases of the Holocene (Figure 1). In our latest field season inSeptember 2007, we established the definitive chronostratigraphicsequence for these two ravines and clarified the position of the potteryand the associated lithic assemblage. In general, the Holocenesedimentary sequence here is primarily composed of channel infilling dueto a high-energy flow of water, strongly contrasting with the underlyingPleistocene silts and more recent Holocene silty formations (Rasse etal. 2006). It is now possible to divide the Early Holocene into fivelarge chronostratigraphic units, identified from top to bottom as HA4 toHA0. The high precision chronological ranges in the titles of the nextsections are based on Bayesian analysis results of [sup.14]C and OSL OSL Open Source LabOSL Office of Student LifeOSL Open Source LicenseOSL Oregon State LibraryOSL Order of St Luke the PhysicianOSL Optical Stimulated LuminescenceOSL Oud Strijders Legioen (Dutch)OSL Order of Saint Luke dates (see Technical Appendix). The HA4 formation (6700-8100 cal BC) The most recent formation, HA4, of fine-grained particle size andparticularly well-developed in the Ravin du Hibou, has yielded artefactsfrom cultural Phase 2 of the Holocene occupation at Ounjougou, dated tothe eighth millennium cal BC by five [sup.14]C dates on charcoal and twoOSL dates (between 8080 [+ or -] 55 BP and 8700 [+ or -] 75 BP, Figure1, Table 1). The material culture is characterised by a microlithic mi��cro��lith?n. ArchaeologyA very small blade made of flaked stone and used as a tool, especially in the European Mesolithic Period.mi quartz industry, with geometric segments, associated with ceramics andgrinding tools (mortar and pestles), in a Sudanian savannah contextcombined with Syzygium gallery-forests (Huysecom et al. 2004; Eichhorn& Neumann in press). [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] The HA3 formation (8100-9000 cal BC) In Ravin de la Mouche, below HA4, unit HA3 comprises a successionof several coarse sand lenses and grey sandy silt layers with organicremains. This indicates a meandering river, with a coarse load, flowingin a floodplain floodplain,level land along the course of a river formed by the deposition of sediment during periodic floods. Floodplains contain such features as levees, backswamps, delta plains, and oxbow lakes. with permanent ponds. Six [sup.14]C dates and one OSLdate allow us to place this formation of HA3 between 8100 and 9000 calBC (between 9150 [+ or -] 70 BP and 9610 [+ or -] 70 BP, Figure 1, Table1). Charcoal, pollen and phytoliths in this layer indicate the existenceof open grassland with a few Sahelo-Sudanian tree species and a densegallery-forest with the riverine riv��er��ine?adj.1. Relating to or resembling a river.2. Located on or inhabiting the banks of a river; riparian: "Members of a riverine tribe ... tree Syzygium. Uapaca, Celtis, Palmsand Marantaceae in the undergrowth were also constituents of the denserwoody vegetation along the watercourses. It points to the existence of apermanent water source, which is essential for palm growth (Stromberg2004), and for Uapaca (Arbonnier 2000). There is some evidence of fire,but only in the gallery-forest (Neumann et al. 2009). With its coarser and finer laminae, HA3 represents the earliestHolocene rhythmic sediments resulting from alternating wet and dryseason alluvial sedimentation. The archaeological finds of HA3 arecharacterised by some isolated quartz flakes and two small roundedceramic fragments (diameter 15mm, thickness 7-8mm) which might representa re-deposition of older material. The HA2 formation (9000-9400 cal BC) Under HA3, unit HA2 is composed of silty sandy alluvial sedimentswith grey Pleistocene silty blocks, particularly at the base of the unit(HA2/a-b), which indicates an important incision of the meandering riverand river bank erosion into the Pleistocene deposits (Lespez et al.2008). These alluvial sediments experienced a slight pedogenesis,particularly visible in the upper part of the unit (HA2/c-d). Two[sup.14]C dates place the HA2 sequence, which is archaeologicallysterile, between 9000 and 9400 cal BC (9510 [+ or -] 70 BP and 9785 [+or -] 70 BP, Figure 1, Table 1). HA2 is a fossil soil with a massivestructure and few channels with clay coating, and phytoliths originatingfrom vegetation developed in situ on the ancient land surface. Thespectrum of Poaceae short cell phytoliths points to a grassland similarto the modern northern Sahel, with dominating annuals (Barboni et al.2007; Neumann et al. 2009). Among the Poaceae, short cell phytolithsidentifiable to subfamily subfamily/sub��fam��i��ly/ (sub��fam-i-le) a taxonomic division between a family and a tribe. sub��fam��i��lyn.A taxonomic category ranking between a family and a genus. level--panicoid morphotypes--(Piperno 2006)are well represented. The grass subfamily Panicoideae comprises numerousannual species with edible grains which are commonly collected in theSahel today (Harlan 1989) and were also used by prehistoric populationsin the Sahara during the Early and Middle Holocene (Fahmy & Barakat1999; Wasylikowa 2001). The phytolith phy��to��lith?n.A minute particle formed of mineral matter by a living plant and fossilized in rock. samples also contain anallochtonous component originating from episodic flooding of the fossilsoil, with morphotypes from Marantaceae and palms indicating a densegallery-forest with a shade-tolerant undergrowth. The HA1 formation (before 9400 cal BC) Below HA3 and HA2, unit HA1 is 2-5m thick and consists of severalsequences composed of red to ochre cross-bedded coarse sand and gravelwith grey Pleistocene silt blocks, suggesting high-energy flows runningthrough a braided river (Lespez et al. 2008). The phytolith samples inHA1 are very poor, due to the low amount of silt, and are therefore notinterpretable in terms of the vegetation during this period. Only a fewmicro-charcoals were found in HA1, and gave a Pleistocene age, showingthe importance of re- deposited sediments. OSL dating failed in thecoarse and badly (if at all) bleached sediments. However, the [sup.14]Cand OSL dates of units HA2, HA3 and HA4 constitute a reliable terminusante quem of 9400 cal BC for unit HA1 and the re-deposition of thearchaeological material (Figure 1, Table 1). The archaeological remainsof HA1 include the oldest ceramic sherds and a rich lithic industry. Theartefacts, although out of archaeological context and reworked, werediscovered in a well-characterised sedimentary sequence, accuratelypositioned in the stratigraphic sequence between the Pleistocenedeposits and the first dated early Holocene sediments (HA2). Theyrepresent a former occupation on the river banks, the sites having beeneroded by fluvial flu��vi��al?adj.1. Of, relating to, or inhabiting a river or stream.2. Produced by the action of a river or stream.[Middle English, from Latin activity and their material re-deposited in HA1. Thegood preservation of two ceramic sherds and the slight wearing on theridges of the lithic material show clearly that they had not beentransported over long distances. The HA1 assemblage The lithic assemblage of unit HA1 numbers 479 objects, primarilyknapped from quartz cobbles cob��ble?1?n.1. A cobblestone.2. Geology A rock fragment between 64 and 256 millimeters in diameter, especially one that has been naturally rounded.3. cobbles See cob coal.tr. . It is characterised by small bifacialfusiform fusiform/fu��si��form/ (-form) shaped like a spindle; tapered at each end. fu��si��formadj.Tapering at each end; spindle-shaped.fusiformspindle-shaped. or oval foliate foliate/fo��li��ate/ (fo��le-it)1. having, pertaining to, or resembling leaves.2. consisting of thin, leaflike layers. points (Figure 2), obtained by bifacialshaping, in some cases by pressure flaking, and by the absence ofgeometric microliths. Among the other retouched tools are drill bits,borer, burins and end-scrapers. This toolkit, although in secondaryposition, can be securely attributed to the Early Holocene, since thesetypes are significantly absent in the MSA industries of the region,particularly drill bits, borers and bifacial points. The latter, basedon their size, morphology and shaping technique, are quite differentfrom those recovered in the recent phases of the MSA at Ounjougou(Robert et al. 2003). Moreover, retouched tools are rare or absent inMSA industries at Ounjougou, although here they represent 6.2 per centof the entire assemblage. The other retouched tools within HA1 unit(sidescrapers, retouched flakes, scaled pieces and denticulates) couldalso be observed in MSA industries so they could not be securelyattributed to Early Holocene. [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] Three ceramic sherds from the base of the stratigraphic unit HA1A(Figure 3) are associated with this industry (their dimensions arerespectively 100, 35 and 15mm). Their thickness ranges from 4.5 to 7mm.Only one form could be reconstituted as a hemispherical bowl with asimple rim and a diameter of 0.21m. One sherd shows a number ofimpressions which could not be precisely identified. Microscopicanalysis of two samples shows a silicate silicate,chemical compound containing silicon, oxygen, and one or more metals, e.g., aluminum, barium, beryllium, calcium, iron, magnesium, manganese, potassium, sodium, or zirconium. Silicates may be considered chemically as salts of the various silicic acids. matrix, free of carbonates,with 20-30 per cent of the volume being non-plastic inclusions. Theseare mainly well-rounded quartz monocrystals with a thinrecrystallization recrystallization,n the return of a wrought metal to crystalline form because of excessive cold working or excessive application of heat.recrystallization border, very similar to those observed in localsandstones and clays. Therefore, a local to regional origin of theanalysed samples can be inferred. Mineralogical analyses by X-raydiffraction of the clays from the closest outcrops confirm the presenceof kaolinite kaolinite(kā`əlĭnīt), clay mineral crystallizing in the monoclinic system and forming the chief constituent of china clay and kaolin. , which is lacking in the studied material. This points tofiring temperatures higher than 550[degrees]C, because kaolinite is notstable above this temperature in oxidizing firing conditions. Evidently,the studied samples are not fragments of a heat-hardened clay, but of afired clay, i.e. of a true ceramic object. [FIGURE 3 OMITTED] The HA0 formation (before 9400 cal BC) At the base of Ravin de la Mouche, the earliest sedimentarysequence (HA0) of the Pleistocene-Holocene transition is composed ofreworked Pleistocene silts. This unit was directly cut into a channeldeveloped within the yellow Pleistocene silts of formation U4, dated byOSL between 45 and 40ka (Rasse et al. 2004), and reflects a brutalhydrologic episode with significant reworking of the banks of theYam& It is archaeologically sterile. Discussion: emergence of pottery south of the Sahara At Ounjougou, new stratigraphic and chronological data for thebeginning of the Holocene support a terminus ante quem of 9400 cal BCfor an archaeological assemblage characterised by the presence ofceramics and lithics in small bifacial forms. From an archaeologicalviewpoint, if we consider all of the [sup.14]C dates for African siteswith ceramics and contemporary with the HA1, HA2 and HA3 formations atRavin de la Mouche (Figures 4 and 5, Table 2), it can be observed thatfew of them have been dated earlier than 9000 cal BC. They areconcentrated in two different regions: in the large mountain massifs ofthe Central Sahara (Adrar Bous 10 and Tagalagal; Roset 2000) and in theEastern Sahara and the Nile Valley (Bir Kiseiba E-79-8, Sarurab 2 andWadi el Akhdar; Connor 1984; Khabir 1987; Schon 1996). [FIGURE 4 OMITTED] After a review of the evidence, we have decided to exclude a seriesof dates lacking a clear stratigraphic context from the discussion: theearliest [14.sup.C] date of Uadi Ti-n-Torha in Libya 9080 [+ or -] 70 BP(R-1036, Barich 1974: 149), Tamaya Mellet in Niger 9350 [+ or -] 170 BP(Gif-1728, Paris et al. 1993: 385), Bir Kiseiba E-80-4 in Egypt 9220 [+or -] 120 BP (SMU-925, Close 1984: 347) and finally the Site LauneyAK-AF 094-18 in Algeria 9210 [+ or -] 115 BP (UW-97, Maitre 1971: 57;Maitre 1974: 101). The discoveries of Temet in Niger are not included inthis discussion either. The excavation of the lacustrine deposits ofTemet yielded a date indicating the contemporaneity of this site withthe HA2 formation at Ounjougou, at the junction of the tenth and ninthmillennium cal BC (9550 [+ or -] 100 BP; Roset 1983, 1996). This is alsoone of the few sites that contain bifacial arrowheads comparable tothose found in formation HA1 of Ravin de la Mouche, indicating a clearrelationship between the two areas. However, Temet contains only wholeor broken stone bowls made out of fibrolite. The use of pottery here isonly suggested by a fragment of a short, toothed object, on a plaquetteof chloritic chlo��rite?1?n.A generally green or black secondary mineral, (Mg,Fe,Al)6(Si,Al)4O10(OH)8 schist schist(shĭst), metamorphic rock having a foliated, or plated, structure called schistosity in which the component flaky minerals are visible to the naked eye. . This object was interpreted as a potter's combafter the observation of impressed motifs on surface-find sherds (Roset1983: Figure 15). The latter sherds cannot, however, be reliablycorrelated with the occupation of the site during the Early Holocene. Inaddition, this object may also be a fragment of a disc decorated withincisions, without any necessary connection to ceramic production. Untilproof of the contrary, the populations of Temet appear to have opted forthe use of carved and polished stone and not fired clay for thefabrication of some of their containers. [FIGURE 5 OMITTED] Only one comparable site can be seen as potentially contemporarywith the appearance of ceramics at Ounjougou, before the HA1/HA2transition: Bit Kiseiba, in the southern part of the Egyptian Sahara,this site having also yielded grinding equipment. The site E-79-8 at BitKiseiba yielded three sherds discovered during the excavation of sandysediments (Connor 1984), found just below ground surface, as well as atdepths of 0.10 and 0.60m. In the publication, the excavator ex��ca��va��torn.An instrument, such as a sharp spoon or curette, used in scraping out pathological tissue.excavator (eks´k indicatesfor the deepest sherd: "it is possible that the sherd might havebeen moved to this depth by traffic over the surface of the site'(Connor 1984: 240). Three other sherds were nearby surface finds. Theseven [sup.14]C dates obtained on charcoal, unfortunately, have largeerror margins and as a result a broad range for the calibration, whichranges flora the end of the eleventh millennium to the beginning of theeighth millennium cal BC (between 9820 [+ or -] 380 BP and 8920 [+ or -]130 BP). Without stratigraphic context to clearly correlate the threesherds and the dates, it is not possible to go further in theinterpretation of this site in terms of dating the emergence ofceramics. From a palaeoenvironmental viewpoint, geomorphological ge��o��mor��phol��o��gy?n.The study of the evolution and configuration of landforms.geo��mor andsedimentological analyses in Ravin de la Mouche indicate a powerfulhydrologic regime for this period that remodelled the landscape on thevalley floor. This allows us to identify a relationship between theemergence of the ceramic and lithic assemblage with one of the humidphases of the Pleistocene-Holocene transition recently recognised inWest Africa (DeMenocal et al. 2000; Duplessy et al. 2005; Lezine et al.2005). This corresponds most probably to the abrupt resumption of theAfrican monsoon after the Younger Dryas, between 10 050 and 9350 cal BC,the early Holocene monsoon front reaching 14[degrees]N around 9500 calBC in West Africa (Garcin et al. 2007). The palaeoenvironmental datafrom Ounjougou and other terrestrial sites in the Sahel (Waller et al.2007; Neumann et al. in press) show that the onset of the monsoon had animmediate effect on the landscape. A vast tropical grassland spreadacross the former desert areas, and panicoid grasses with edible grainsbecame available in abundance. As in the Near East (Haaland 1995, 2007;Hillman 1996) and in East Asia, the massive presence of wild cerealstriggered the development of new resource exploitation behaviour, linkedwith technological innovations for collection, storage and processing.Heat treatment of the wild cereals before consumption increases thedigestibility digestibilitythe proportion of a feed or diet which can be digested by the normal animal of the subject species.digestibility coefficientsee digestibility coefficient. of the starch-rich grains by amylase amylase(ăm`əlās'), enzyme having physiological, commercial, and historical significance, also called diastase. It is found in both plants and animals. Amylase was purified (1835) from malt by Anselme Payen and Jean Persoz. in the human body(Stahl 1989). While the baking of bread became the predominant form ofprocessing in the Near East, we hypothesize that the small grains of thetropical African Panicoideae were boiled in a container, as practisedtoday in the Sahel. As with East Asia, African ceramics were part of anew technological complex, together with the production of smallbifacial arrowheads for hunting in the open tropical savannas. Conclusion Thus, with a solid stratigraphic and chronological context atOunjougou, there is no doubt that ceramics appeared in sub-Saharan WestAfrica at least as early as in the Nile Valley, some time before 9400cal BC. This innovation must be coupled with the re- establishment ofthe tropical grassland during the Early Holocene. Starting in the middleof the tenth millennium cal BC, the new technological complex may haverapidly diffused northwards, together with the advancing monsoon front,the greening of the Sahara and the massive expansion of edible Panicoidgrasses. Acknowledgments We would like to thank the Swiss National Foundation for ScientificResearch (FNRS FNRS Fonds National de La Recherche Scientifique (Belgium organization promoting development of higher teaching and research in the biomedical field)FNRS Fonds National Suisse de la Recherche Scientifique ), the Swiss-Liechtenstein Foundation for ForeignArchaeological Research (SLSA SLSA State Library of South AustraliaSLSA Surf Life Saving AustraliaSLSA Socio-Legal Studies Association (UK)SLSA Special Light-Sport AircraftSLSA St. Lawrence Seaway AuthoritySLSA Saskatchewan Land Surveyors' AssociationSLSA St. ), the State and Academic Society ofGeneva Geneva, canton and city, SwitzerlandGeneva(jənē`və), Fr. Genève, canton (1990 pop. 373,019), 109 sq mi (282 sq km), SW Switzerland, surrounding the southwest tip of the Lake of Geneva. , the Faculty of Science of the University of Geneva The University of Geneva (Universit�� de Gen��ve) is a university in Geneva, Switzerland. It was founded by John Calvin in 1559. Initially a theological seminary, it also taught law. , the FrenchMinister of Foreign Affairs and the European Community. Thepalaeoenvironmental studies conducted by the researchers of Caen,Angers, Rouen and Frankfurt have been supported by the INSU-CNRS(program CAPHASS-ECLIPSE II), the French National Research Agency (ANR ANR - Automatic Network Routing )and the German Research Foundation (DFG DFG Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (German Research Council)DFG Department of Fish and GameDFG District Factor GroupDFG Data Flow GraphDFG Difference Frequency GenerationDFG Diode Function GeneratorDFG Dog Faced Gremlin ) (program APPD APPD Anarchistische Pogopartei Deutschland (German Anarchistic Pogo Party)APPD AMEDD Personnel Proponency Directorate (US Army)). Our research inMali benefits from the support of the Cultural Mission of Bandiagara,the Institute of Human Sciences in Bamako, the University of Mali, theSwiss Consulate in Bamako, as well as the inhabitants of the villages ofDimmbal and Gologou. Thanks to Rebecca Miller and Richard Byer fortranslation and language editing and thanks to Philippe Lahos fordiscussing the Bayesian analysis. Technical Appendix After calibration of the [sup.14]C data (IntCal04), OSL and[sup.14]C data sets have been treated together with the Bayesianstatistical method. This method consists in using secure stratigraphicinformation to recalculate re��cal��cu��late?tr.v. re��cal��cu��lat��ed, re��cal��cu��lat��ing, re��cal��cu��latesTo calculate again, especially in order to eliminate errors or to incorporate additional factors or data. the probability density functions (pdf) foreach sample (Bronk Ramsey 2000). In short, it allows the pinpointing ofthe most likely part of each pdf (called 'posterior' data,often referred to as 'highest posterior density' or hpd) whenconsidering the stratigraphic relationships. The direct and interestingconsequence is a reduction of the uncertainty for each individual valueand thus an increase of the chronological resolution (Figure 1). All calculations have been done with the Oxcal 4.0 software (BronkRamsey 2008). OSL data have been integrated to the [sup.14]C onesfollowing the recommendations of Rhodes et al. (2003). The A index givesan indication of the consistency of the data within the data set: whenlower than 60%, the data is considered as an outsider and can bediscarded. In complement to the posterior for each data, one cancalculate the most likely interval for the transitions between thephases. The general chronological ranges used to describe the HA4-HA0units are based on the intervals calculated for those transitions (68.2%confidence interval and [mu]). In particular, this allows concludingthat the transition between HA1 and HA2 occurred between 9477 and 9152cal BC with 68.2% confidence interval (between 9959 and 8932 with 95.4%confidence interval; [mu] = 9376. See Table 1). Received: 30 October 2008; Accepted: 30 January 2009; Revised: 20February 2009 References ARBONNIER, M. 2000. Arbres, arbustes et lianes des zones sechesd'Afrique de l'Ouest. Paris: CIRAD-MNHN-UICN. BARBONI, D., L. BREMOND & R. BONNEFILLE. 2007. 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Neumann, (4) A.Fahmy, (5) A. Ballouche, (6) S. Ozainne, (1) M. Maggetti, (7) Ch.Tribolo (8) & S. Soriano (9) (1) Department of Anthropology and Ecology, University of Geneva,Geneva, CH- 1211, Switzerland (Email. eric.huysecom@unige.ch;sylvain.ozainne@unige.ch) (2) Lab. Ledra, CNRS-UMR IDEES 6228, University of Rouen, MontSt-Aignan, F- 76821, France, and lab. AnTET--Arscan UMR UMR Unite Mixte de Recherche (French: Mixed Unit of Research )UMR University of Missouri - RollaUMR Upper Mississippi RiverUMR Uniform Methods and Rules (US Department of Agriculture)UMR Unit Manning Report 7041 CNRS CNRS Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (National Center for Scientific Research, France)CNRS Centro Nacional de Referencia Para El Sida (Argentinean National Reference Center for Aids),University of Paris-X Nanterre, F-92023, France (Email: michel,rasse@univ-rouen.fr) (3) Lab. Geophen-LETG-UMR 6554 CNRS, University of Caen-BasseNormandie, Caen, F-14000, France (Email: laurent.lespez@unicaen.fr) (4) Institute of Archaeological Sciences, Goethe University,D-60323 Frankfurt, Germany (Email: k.neumann@em.uni-frankfurt.de) (5) Department of Botany, University of Helwan, Cairo, Egypt(Email: afahmy658@gmail.com) (6) Lab. Environmental Studies on Anthropogenic an��thro��po��gen��ic?adj.1. Of or relating to anthropogenesis.2. Caused by humans: anthropogenic degradation of the environment. Systems (LEESA/UA),University of Angers The University of Angers is situated in the town of the same name, in western France. , Angers, F-49000, France (Email: aziz.ballouche@univ-angers.fr) (7) Department of Geosciences, University of Fribourg For the German university, see .The University of Fribourg (French: Universit�� de Fribourg; German: Universit?t Freiburg) is a university in the city of Fribourg, Switzerland. , Fribourg,CH-1700, Switzerland (Email: marino.maggetti@unifr.ch) (8) CRP C-reactive protein (CRP)A protein present in blood serum in various abnormal states, like inflammation.Mentioned in: Pelvic Inflammatory DiseaseCRP,n.pr See C-reactive protein. 2A, UMR 5060, University of Bordeaux University of Bordeaux can refer to one or all of the four universities in Bordeaux, each of which covers a different field of study: University of Bordeaux 1 http://www.u-bordeaux1. , Pessac, F-33607,France (Email: ctribolo@u-bordeaux3.fr) (9) Lab. AnTET--Arscan UMR 7041 CNRS, University of Paris-XNanterre, F-92023, France (Email: sylvain.soriano@mae.u-paris10.fr) * Author for correspondenceTable 1. Radiocarbon and OSL dates, with details of the OxCal plotresults. The columns on the right of the table give the 1[sigma]and 2[sigma] ranges of Bayesian hpd (highest posterior density),the mean ([micro]), the agreement indice for each date (A) andthe agreement index for the whole model (Amodel). See alsoTechnical Appendix.Unit/transitions Sample Material [sup.14]C BP [+ or -]End HA4HA4 01/5_4 Quartz grains Ly-9335 Wood charcoal 8085 50 Ly-9334 Wood charcoal 8080 55 Ly-9339 Wood charcoal 8115 50 Ly-6804 Wood charcoal 8210 60 00/5/4 Quartz grains ETH-20214 Wood charcoal 8700 75HA3/HA4HA3 ETH-27144 Wood charcoal 9150 70 ETH-27143 Wood charcoal 9365 70 ETH-27142 Wood charcoal 9500 75 04/21/3 Quartz grains ETH-28745 Wood charcoal 9515 70 ETH-31278 Wood charcoal 9610 70 ETH-23540 Wood charcoal 9590 70HA2/HA3HA2 ETH-31279 Wood charcoal 9510 70 ETH-28746 Wood charcoal 9785 70HA1/HA2 CalibrationsUnit/transitions Sample OSL Age [+ or -] 1[sigma]End HA4HA4 01/5_4 9800 1000 Ly-9335 7174 6867 Ly-9334 7173 6848 Ly-9339 7172 7052 Ly-6804 7317 7086 00/5/4 11000 1200 ETH-20214 7816 7598HA3/HA4HA3 ETH-27144 8452 8286 ETH-27143 8741 8556 ETH-27142 9120 8659 04/21/3 10700 900 ETH-28745 9121 8744 ETH-31278 9184 8841 ETH-23540 9148 8836HA2/HA3HA2 ETH-31279 9121 8734 ETH-28746 9315 9201HA1/HA2 Bayesian hpd (Amodel = 99.6)Unit/transitions Sample 2[sigma] 1[sigma]End HA4 7032 6654HA4 01/5_4 7067 6829 Ly-9335 7291 6826 7121 6868 Ly-9334 7295 6820 7134 7046 Ly-9339 7312 6861 7182 7070 Ly-6804 7450 7066 7322 7143 00/5/4 7684 7234 ETH-20214 8166 7582 7817 7599HA3/HA4 8439 7926HA3 ETH-27144 8551 8256 8535 8293 ETH-27143 8815 8350 8730 8559 ETH-27142 9152 8629 8812 8645 04/21/3 8800 8351 ETH-28745 9155 8638 8916 8766 ETH-31278 9233 8790 8939 8799 ETH-23540 9224 8773 9036 8861HA2/HA3 9116 8935HA2 ETH-31279 9151 8638 9178 9024 ETH-28746 9441 8925 9296 9157HA1/HA2 9477 9152 Bayesian hpd (Amodel = 99.6)Unit/transitions Sample 2[sigma] [micro] AEnd HA4 7096 6173 6729HA4 01/5_4 7124 6544 6892 93.5 Ly-9335 7137 6836 7026 116 Ly-9334 7183 6923 7083 132 Ly-9339 7306 7056 7160 89.2 Ly-6804 7451 7077 7243 101 00/5/4 7846 7070 7466 63 ETH-20214 8166 7582 7765 99HA3/HA4 8521 7683 8132HA3 ETH-27144 8601 8263 8415 92.6 ETH-27143 8800 8359 8626 104 ETH-27142 8891 8572 8739 102 04/21/3 8896 7996 8501 134 ETH-28745 9054 8715 8859 109 ETH-31278 9040 8756 8886 97.6 ETH-23540 9131 8821 8966 111HA2/HA3 9191 8862 9027HA2 ETH-31279 9231 8943 9094 84 ETH-28746 9366 8927 9208 87.1HA1/HA2 9959 8932 9376Table 2. Summary of [sup.14]C dates and calibrations from Africansites with ceramics contemporaneous with the HA1, HA2 and HA3formations at Ounjougou. Ravin de la Mouche dates appear here assimple calibrations in chronological order.Country Site No Lab[sup.14]C BP [+ or -]Egypt Bir Kiseiba E-79-8 SMU-757 8920 130Niger Adrar Bous 10 N 9030 190Egypt Bir Kiseiba E-79-8 SMU-861 9060 80Soudan Wadi el Akhdar UtC-6536 9080 50Niger Adrar Bous 10 9100 150Niger Tagalagal 9100 120Niger Adrar Bous 10 9130 65Niger Tagalagal 9150 90Mali Mouche HA3 ETH-27144 9150 70Egypt Bir Kiseiba E-79-8 SMU-914 9180 140Niger Tagalagal 9330 130Soudan Sarurab 2 HAR-3476 9339 110Egypt Bir Kiseiba E-79-8 SMU-927 9350 120Mali Mouche HA3 ETH-27143 9365 70Soudan Sarurab 2 HAR-3475 9370 110Niger Tagalagal 9370 130Egypt Bir Kiseiba E-79-8 SMU-758 9440 230Mali Mouche HA3 ETH-27142 9500 75Mali Mouche HA2 ETH-31279 9510 70Mali Mouche HA3 ETH-28745 9515 70Mali Mouche HA3 ETH-23540 9590 70Egypt Bir Kiseiba E-79-8 SMU-928 9610 150Mali Mouche HA3 ETH-31278 9610 70Mali Mouche HA2 ETH-28746 9785 70Egypt Bir Kiseiba E-79-8 SMU-858 9820 380Country Cal BC 1 [sigma] Cal BC 2 [sigma]Egypt 8274 7846 8323 7610Niger 8535 7940 8700 7612Egypt 8428 8207 8536 7969Soudan 8310 8246 8437 8226Niger 8563 8004 8713 7823Niger 8541 8221 8633 7955Niger 8437 8277 8541 8245Niger 8525 8279 8610 8235Mali 8450 8285 8550 8255Egypt 8597 8275 8790 7971Niger 8753 8348 9120 8284Soudan 8755 8354 9116 8293Egypt 8780 8352 9120 8295Mali 8739 8555 8814 8348Soudan 8796 8461 9120 8308Niger 8817 8350 9132 8298Egypt 9147 8481 9393 8224Mali 9119 8658 9150 8628Mali 9119 8733 9150 8636Mali 9120 8743 9154 8637Mali 9147 8835 9222 8772Egypt 9220 8813 9336 8561Mali 9183 8839 9231 8789Mali 9313 9200 9440 8923Egypt 10015 8759 10660 8326