The early management of cattle (Bos taurus) in Neolithic central Anatolia.

The early management of cattle (Bos taurus) in Neolithic central Anatolia. Introduction The domestication domesticationProcess of hereditary reorganization of wild animals and plants into forms more accommodating to the interests of people. In its strictest sense, it refers to the initial stage of human mastery of wild animals and plants. of cattle in the Near East approximately 10 000years ago was an important innovation that helped transform thesubsistence systems of agro-pastoral societies that, previously, hadrelied largely on herds of domestic sheep and goats. The addition ofdomestic cattle (Bos taurus) to the Neolithic subsistence complex, aprocess that was initiated a millennium after the first successfulmanagement of caprines, facilitated the development of new economic andsocial systems that took advantage of the large packages of animalproducts, including meat, blood, skin, and renewable milk and traction,offered by managed cattle herds. The processes by which domestic taurine taurine/tau��rine/ (taw��ren) an oxidized sulfur-containing amine occurring conjugated in the bile, usually as cholyltaurine or chenodeoxycholyltaurine; it may also be a central nervous system neurotransmitter or neuromodulator. cattle were incorporatedinto Neolithic agropastoral subsistence economies in central Anatoliamay be documented through various lines of zooarchaeological evidence,including biometric, demographic and skeletal part representation data.Through comparative analyses of these faunal data recovered frommultiple Neolithic sites located in the region, in particular thearchaeofaunas from Erbaba and Catalhoyuk (Figure 1, Table 1), we arguefor a new date and process of domestication that includes theimportation of cattle previously domesticated do��mes��ti��cate?tr.v. do��mes��ti��cat��ed, do��mes��ti��cat��ing, do��mes��ti��cates1. To cause to feel comfortable at home; make domestic.2. To adopt or make fit for domestic use or life.3. a. elsewhere. Cattle exploitation at Erbaba The Neolithic site of Erbaba provides a valuable source of data foraddressing the nature of cattle exploitation in central Anatolia at acritical time in the expansion of cattle management throughout the NearEast and beyond (e.g. Horwitz & Ducos 2005; Zeder 2008). Althoughthe site was excavated more than four decades ago, this important faunalassemblage Faunal Assemblage is the archaeological or paleontological term for a group of associated animal fossils found together in a given stratum.The principle of faunal succession is used in biostratigraphy to determine each biostratigraphic unit, or biozone. has never been published in detail (although see Bordaz &Alper-Bordaz 1976, 1979; Makarewicz 1999). Three major stratigraphic stra��tig��ra��phy?n.The study of rock strata, especially the distribution, deposition, and age of sedimentary rocks.strat phases have been identified. Each layer dates to the Pottery Neolithicperiod Neolithic periodor New Stone Age.The term neolithic is used, especially in archaeology and anthropology, to designate a stage of cultural evolution or technological development characterized by the use of stone tools, the existence of and is roughly contemporary with the latest levels of Catalhoyuk(VI-I) (Bordaz & Alper-Bordaz 1979). Radiocarbon dates obtained byBordaz and Alper-Bordaz (1982) are problematic, with most determinationsfrom wood charcoals yielding extremely large standard deviations, butrecent efforts to re-date Erbaba on the basis of animal bone collagenshave provided several dates confirming a Pottery Neolithic occupation ofthe site c. 6600-6100 cal BC (Table 2). [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] The animal economy at Erbaba was dominated by the herding ofdomestic caprines, although this was supplemented through the hunting ofwild sheep and goats, as well as other wild ungulate ungulateAny hoofed, herbivorous, quadruped, placental mammal in three or four orders: Artiodactyla, the even-toed ungulates (including pigs, camels, deer, and bovines); Perissodactyla, the odd-toed ungulates (including horses, tapirs, and rhinoceroses); Proboscidea taxa (Arbuckle2006, 2008). Cattle are the third most abundant taxonomic group Noun 1. taxonomic group - animal or plant group having natural relationstaxon, taxonomic categoryAdapid, Adapid group - extinct small mostly diurnal lower primates that fed on leaves and fruit; abundant in North America and Europe 30 to 50 million years in theassemblage after caprines and pigs, representing c. 5 per cent of theassemblage based on counts of specimens identified to the genus level,and 23.8 per cent of the assemblage based on bone weight (Tables 3 and4). Thus, although the number of remains is relatively small, cattlerepresent a central component of the subsistence system at Erbaba. The relative frequency of cattle remains changes little through thestratigraphic sequence at Erbaba, but the ratio of caprines and cattle,the two most important taxonomic groups based on bone weight, shiftsmarkedly over time. The ratio of caprines to cattle in level III, theoldest level at Erbaba, is 21:1 but decreases to 8:1 and 13:1 in levelsII and I, respectively, indicating that cattle became an increasinglyimportant part of a more diverse economy in the uppermost levels of thesite. LSI LSI:see integrated circuit. (Large Scale Integration) Between 3,000 and 100,000 transistors on a chip. See SSI, MSI, VLSI and ULSI. analysis It has long been recognised that domestic ungulates ungulates, ungulataanimals with hooves; cattle, sheep, goat, pig, horse and many wild and other domesticated species. , includingcattle, exhibit a reduced body size compared to their wild counterparts(Rutimeyer 1862; Rohrs & Herre 1961; Ducos 1968; Grigson 1989).Reduced size may be recognised in archaeofaunal assemblages frommeasurements of individual skeletal elements and LSI values. In the logsize index (LSI) method, log transformed measurements taken fromarchaeological specimens representing multiple skeletal elements arecompared with those from a standard animal; in this case a large femaleaurochs aurochs:see cattle. aurochsor aurochExtinct wild ox (Bos primigenius) of Europe, the species from which cattle are probably descended. The aurochs survived in central Poland until 1627. It was black, stood 6 ft (1. from Mesolithic Denmark (following Grigson 1989; de Cupere &Duru 2003; Russell & Martin 2005). Although there are some potentialproblems with using an animal from a different region as the standard,including the potential for non-allometric variation in skeletaldimensions between the standard and the archaeological population(Meadow 1999; Zeder 2001; Russell et al. 2005), recent work in theregion has shown these problems to be relatively minor (Russell &Martin 2005). LSI values for Erbaba cattle are much smaller than those frommorphologically wild populations from PPNA PPNA Power Plate North America Inc. (Chicago, IL)Gobekli Tepe, EPPNB NevaliCori Nevalı ?ori was an early Neolithic Pre-Pottery Neolithic (BPPNB) settlement on the middle Euphrates, in the province of Şanlıurfa (Urfa), eastern Turkey. The site is famous for having revealed some one of the world's most ancient known temples and of its oldest , aceramic Asikli and Suberde, and the early levels (pre-XII to IV)of Catalhoyuk, indicating the presence of morphological domesticates.Comparison of LSI values within the Erbaba assemblage indicates thatalthough median values are largest in level III ([LSI.sub.medianIII] =0.006; n = 9) and decrease through time in levels II and I([LSI.sub.medianII] = -0.071, n = 15; [LSI.sub.medianI] = -0.037, n =32), Mann-Whitney U tests, and a one-way ANOVA anovasee analysis of variance.ANOVAAnalysis of variance, see there test indicate that thesedifferences within the assemblage are not significant (p > 0.05).Summaries of LSI values presented in Figure 2 compare the size of cattlefrom Erbaba with other Neolithic sites in central Turkey and the middleEuphrates region. Figure 3 provides a more detailed look at the distributions of LSIvalues for Neolithic sites specific to central Anatolia. The villagesite of Asikli and the nearby special purpose site of Musular representan early phase in the Neolithic occupation of central Anatolia (c.8400-7200 cal BC) and cattle remains recovered from these settlementsrepresent morphologically wild populations (Russell et al. 2005). CattleLSI values from the early levels of Catalhoyuk, including pre-XII (c.7400-7000 cal BC), XII-VII (c. 7000-6500 cal BC), and VI-IV (c.6500-6300 cal BC), show no evidence for a decrease in size relative tothe Asikli/Musular populations, although a shift in the sex ratio isvisible in levels VI-IV, with an increase in the representation ofsmaller, presumably pre��sum��a��ble?adj.That can be presumed or taken for granted; reasonable as a supposition: presumable causes of the disaster. female, animals relative to the earlier levels atCatalhoyuk (Russell et al. 2005: 104). LSI data generated from the Mellaart excavations representing theupper levels VII-I at Catalhoyuk, but primarily representing levels IIIand II (Russell et al. 2005: 104) (c. 65006000 cal BC) indicate thefirst appearance of small-sized specimens that fall significantly belowthe size range documented in earlier levels at the site (see Table 5).Equally small-sized cattle are also present at Erbaba (c. 6600-6100 calBC), and at Hoyucek (c. 6400/62006000 cal BC) (Figure 3) indicating asignificant decline in cattle size throughout the region in the lateseventh millennium BC. The wide range of LSI values present at Erbabaand in the uppermost levels of Catalhoyuk suggests the continuedpresence of wild cattle in those assemblages. At Hoyucek, however, amajority of specimens fall below the lower end of the size range of wildcattle (c. -0.06 on the LSI scale) and specimens in the size range ofbull aurochsen are rare. [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] [FIGURE 3 OMITTED] [FIGURE 4 OMITTED] Biometric results based on LSI values are supported by measurementsof the length of the astragalus astragalus/as��trag��a��lus/ (as-trag��ah-lus) talus.astrag��alar as��trag��a��lusn.See talus. , the most abundant single measurement inthe assemblage (Figure 4). Measurements from Erbaba cattle areconsiderably smaller than those obtained from Mureybet, Asikli, and theearly levels of Catalhoyuk, assemblages thought to represent wildpopulations (Payne 1985; Ducos 1988; Russell et al. 2005). While stillincluding some very large specimens, the data from the upper levels ofCatalhoyuk and Erbaba exhibit much smaller mean values than those fromearlier sites and are similar to those representing domestic cattle fromLate Neolithic Hoyucek and Sabi Abyad. It is unlikely that the size diminution observed in centralAnatolian cattle is due to shifts in environmental conditions over timeor geographical differences. There is no evidence for change in the bodysize of red deer Red Deer, city, CanadaRed Deer,city (1991 pop. 58,134), S central Alta., Canada, on the Red Deer River. It developed as a trade and service center for a region of dairying and mixed farming. from sites in central and south-eastern Turkey from thePPNA through the Pottery Neolithic (see Figure 5). Mann-Whitney U testsas well as a one-way ANOVA (F = 0.51, df = 132, p = 0.73) indicate nosignificant differences between the LSI values for these populations.The absence of size diminution in red deer over a long temporal sequencesupports the conclusion that the decrease in cattle size seen in centralAnatolia during the seventh millennium is largely due to humanmanagement rather than environmental inputs selecting for smaller bodysize in wild populations. [FIGURE 5 OMITTED] Survivorship survivorshipn. the right to receive full title or ownership due to having survived another person. Survivorship is particularly applied to persons owning real property or other assets, such as bank accounts or stocks, in "joint tenancy. analysis Demographic data are presented in Figure 6 in the form ofsurvivorship curves generated from the state of fusion of long boneepiphyses. Demographic profiles are useful tools for documenting theorigins of cattle herding (Hesse 1982; Horwitz et al. 1999). In manycases, the management of domestic animals produces survivorship curvesdominated by the remains of immature individuals, usually young males,while hunting often (but not always) produces demographic patterns withhigher frequencies of mature individuals often with anover-representation of large males. Although these patterns can bebroadly useful in differentiating strategies of hunting and herding,variables such as the intensity and seasonality of hunting, managementfor milk and traction, as well as exploitation strategies that includecomponents of both herding and hunting often make the interpretation ofdemographic patterns difficult (Meadow 1989; Arbuckle 2008). Survivorship data indicate a significant focus on the slaughter ofimmature cattle at Erbaba, with only 55 per cent of the sample survivingpast the age of fusion of the metapodials (c. 24 months) and calcaneus calcaneus/cal��ca��ne��us/ (kal-ka��ne-us) pl. calca��nei ? [L.] heel bone; the irregular quadrangular bone at the back of the tarsus. calca��nealcalca��nean cal��ca��ne��usor cal��ca��ne��umn. (c. 36 months), and c. 45 per cent surviving past the age of fusion ofthe latest fusing skeletal parts (c. 48 months) (Silver 1969). Inaddition, the ratio of deciduous deciduous/de��cid��u��ous/ (de-sid��u-us) falling off or shed at maturity, as the teeth of the first dentition. de��cid��u��ousadj.1. , mandibular mandibular(mandib´ylr),adj pertaining to the lower jaw. fourth premolars to thirdmolars (6:8) confirms the results of long bone fusion suggesting that arelatively high proportion of cattle at Erbaba were slaughtered asjuveniles. In contrast, a survivorship curve constructed for red deerindicates that most of these animals were slaughtered as prime-agedadults, with almost 80 per cent surviving past the age of fusion of thelatest fusing skeletal parts (>36 months). [FIGURE 6 OMITTED] Intensive culling of juvenile cattle in their first and secondyears of life at Erbaba is similar to the pattern seen at Catalhoyuk,where c. 40-50 per cent of individuals were slaughtered as juvenilesand/or infants throughout the entire stratigraphic sequence (Ducos 1988;Russell & Martin 2005). However, the frequency of infantile remainsat Erbaba (c. 15 per cent) is considerably lower than at Catalhoyuk(21-33 per cent), although this may at least partially be an artifact ofthe more effective recovery of small, unfused specimens at the lattersite. Skeletal part distribution Skeletal part representations are useful for interpreting the modeof animal exploitation employed at a site, especially for large mammals,whose carcasses are laborious to transport (Perkins & Daly 1968;Becker 2002). The presence of all portions of a large mammal carcasssuggests an economy based on domesticates in which animals are readilyavailable and are slaughtered and butchered onsite. Conversely, highfrequencies of so-called high utility skeletal parts (e.g. proximalportions of limbs) representing concentrations of useful resources (e.g.meat, marrow, bone grease, etc.) and under-representation of lowerutility skeletal parts (e.g. feet and heads) has been associated withhunting practices in which animals are slaughtered and butchered awayfrom the site and only the most useful parts are transported back to thesite itself (Perkins & Daly 1968; Vigne et al. 1999). Based on thismodel, the presence of lower utility skeletal parts, especially head andfoot remains, indicating onsite butchery and slaughter of cattle, mayserve as a proxy for identifying systems of cattle management. [FIGURE 7 OMITTED] A summary of the representation of skeletal parts is presented inFigure 7 for both cattle and red deer. This graph presents deviationsfrom the expected frequencies of skeletal parts in a complete ungulateskeleton for five anatomical regions including the head, axial skeleton axial skeletonn.The bones of the head and trunk, excluding the pectoral and pelvic girdles. ,forelimb, hindlimb hindlimbthe pelvic limb; back leg. and extremities. These values are produced bycalculating the minimum number of skeletal elements (MNE) andstandardising first in reference to the number of elements present in askeleton (Binford's [1984] MAU (Multi-station Access Unit) A central hub in a Token Ring local area network. See hub. MAU - Media Access Unit ) and then for each anatomical region(Stiner 1994: 240; Arbuckle 2006). A value above zero on this graphindicates that the elements of a given anatomical region areover-represented in proportion to their frequency in a complete carcass,while negative values indicate under-representation. Comparison of the representation of anatomical regions shows thatpatterns for cattle and red deer at Erbaba differ significantly bothfrom the expected values and from each other. For cattle, aKolmogorov-Smirnov one sample test indicates that the representation ofanatomical regions differs significantly from that expected in acomplete carcass (D = 0.154, n = 93, p <0.05). Elements of the headand hindlimb are slightly under-represented, whereas elements of theforelimb are slightly over-represented. The most dramatic deviationsfrom expected skeletal proportions for cattle are observed in the axialskeleton, the elements of which are highly under-represented, and thedistal extremities (i.e. feet), which are highly over-represented. Theunder-representation of axial elements is likely due to the low densityof axial skeletal elements, which tend not to survive taphonomicprocesses such as cooking and carnivore carnivore(kär`nəvôr'), term commonly applied to any animal whose diet consists wholly or largely of animal matter. In animal systematics it refers to members of the mammalian order Carnivora (see Chordata). gnawing, evidence of which isabundant in the Erbaba faunal assemblage (see Arbuckle 2006). The greatabundance of foot elements, however, is not related to density-mediatedattrition and thus probably reflects human behaviors associated with thebutchery and disposal of cattle remains. The abundance of foot elementslikely indicates that primary butchery of cattle carcasses took placenear the site, a conclusion that fits with the interpretation of Erbabacattle as a domestic population (although see Perkins & Daly 1968;Marciniak 2005). The representation of skeletal elements for red deer differs fromthat for cattle in important ways, indicating that skeletal partfrequencies are not simply the result of taphonomic processes affectingthe remains of all large mammals, but instead represent differences inthe exploitation of deer versus cattle. For red deer, elements of theforelimb and hindlimb are over-represented while elements of the head,distal extremities, and axial skeleton are under-represented (Figure 7).As with cattle, the under-representation of the red deer axial skeletonmay be due to density mediated attrition while the high concentrationsof meat rich fore- and hindlimbs, and the under-representation ofnutrient poor heads and feet likely reflect carcasses processingstrategies employed by Erbaba hunters. This evidence suggests that, incontrast to cattle, red deer were hunted and field processed at somedistance from the settlement, with only the most useful portions of theskeleton being brought back to the site for further processing. Cattle at Catalhoyuk Prior to the availability of new data from Erbaba,zooarchaeological evidence for early cattle exploitation in centralAnatolia had been largely limited to the faunal assemblage recoveredfrom Catalhoyuk. Analyses of the Catalhoyuk fauna conducted by Perkins(1969) documented a high frequency of cattle remains in the faunalassemblage (c. 75 per cent of the collected fauna), representation ofall portions of the cattle skeleton, and size diminution in level VI (c.6500 cal BC), suggesting that domesticated cattle were present at thesite from an early date. New research, however, has forced are-evaluation of the status and processes of cattle domestication atCatalhoyuk and in central Anatolia in general. Contrary to Perkins' initial results, cattle are not unusuallyabundant at Catalhoyuk, constituting only c. 15 per cent of the totalfaunal remains, and size diminution, the evidence for which seems tohave been based on methodological errors (Grigson 1989; Russell &Martin 2005), is not evident in the cattle remains in the lower levels.Moreover, comparison of metrical met��ri��cal?adj.1. Of, relating to, or composed in poetic meter: metrical verse; five metrical units in a line.2. Of or relating to measurement. data from Catalhoyuk with those frommorphologically wild cattle populations from two earlier aceramic sitesin central Anatolia, Asikli Hoyuk and Musular, indicate that cattle fromthe lower levels (pre-XII through IV) at Catalhoyuk are similar to, orslightly larger in body size than cattle from those earlier sites(Russel et al. 2005). Demographic data generated for cattle recovered from the lowerlevels at Catalhoyuk also indicate that a high proportion of prime-agedadults and large males were slaughtered by the inhabitants of the site,suggesting that cattle were hunted, not herded, at Catalhoyuk between7400-6300 cal BC (levels pre-XII through IV) (Russell & Martin2005). In addition, at aceramic Suberde, a settlement located less than100km from both Catalhoyuk and Erbaba, demographic data indicating afocus on slaughtering prime-aged adults and metrical data falling withinthe size range of Near Eastern aurochsen suggest that wild cattle werealso exploited in the Beysehir region of central Anatolia throughout theearly Neolithic (c. 7500-7000 cal BC) (Perkins & Daly 1968; Perkins1969). Analyses of fauna representing the latest phases of the Neolithicsettlement at Catalhoyuk (Levels VII-I; 6500-6000 cal BC), recoveredfrom the earlier Mellaart excavations, further reveals importantdiachronic di��a��chron��icadj.Of or concerned with phenomena as they change through time. shifts in cattle exploitation at the site (Ducos 1988). Tootheruption Tooth eruption after humans is a process in tooth development in which the teeth enter the mouth and become visible. It is currently believed that the periodontal ligaments play an important role in tooth eruption. and wear data indicate an increase in juvenile kill-offcompared to the lower levels, with 40 per cent of cattle slaughteredbetween 0-2 years of age in the latest levels (Ducos 1988: 87). Cattleremains recovered from the upper levels of Catalhoyuk are alsoconsiderably smaller than those from the earlier levels, withindividuals falling well below the size range of Near Eastern aurochsenappearing for the first time. Since morphological domesticates have notbeen identified in recent work at the site through level IV, these datasuggest that morphologically domestic cattle make their first appearanceat Catalhoyuk some time in the latest levels, between 6300-6000 cal BC. Autochthonous autochthonous/au��toch��tho��nous/ (aw-tok��thah-nus)1. originating in the same area in which it is found.2. denoting a tissue graft to a new site on the same individual. and diffusionary domestication processes Distinguishing between autochthonous domestication processes andthe diffusion of domestic animals into a region from an outside sourceassumes that these processes are each characterised by distinctivetrends observable in the biometrical and demographic data produced byeach process. Although it is recognised that there is the potential forvariation extending outside of this binary framework, it is argued thatthese models provide useful points of departure for more detaileddiscussions of the complex processes responsible for the emergence ofcattle management in Anatolia. For those faunal assemblages produced by bringing local, wildpopulations under human control, the expectation is that these sampleswill be characterised by a gradual shift in skeletal morphology andbiometrics, a process which may extend over a millennium or more as theintroduction of management practices and anthropogenic an��thro��po��gen��ic?adj.1. Of or relating to anthropogenesis.2. Caused by humans: anthropogenic degradation of the environment. selectivepressures slowly transform wild populations into phenotypically domesticones. Zooarchaeological evidence derived from several sites across theNear East, each exhibiting great temporal depth, supports this model,linking together gradual morphological change in animal populations andin situ In place. When something is "in situ," it is in its original location. domestication processes. At Merhgarh, a large Neolithicsettlement located on the eastern margin of the Near East in PakistaniBalochistan, biometric data document a gradual process of sizediminution in cattle recovered from deposits spanning the Neolithicperiod (c. 7000-4000 cal BC). By the end of the Neolithic, Mehrgarhcattle exhibit skeletal dimensions that fall well below those of wildaurochs suggesting local domestication processes (Meadow 1981, 1984,1993). Similarly, a pattern of gradual reduction in body size is seen incattle at Cayonu Tepesi, south-eastern Turkey, with the proportion ofsmall, domestic-sized animals increasing slowly over time from theChanneled Building sub-phase (Middle PPNB PPNB Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (era), c. 8300-7500 cal BC) throughthe Pottery Neolithic levels (c. 6000 cal BC) (Hongo et al. 2002, 2004). In contrast, diffusion models describing the appearance ofdomesticated animals This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims.Please help Wikipedia by adding references. See the for details.This article has been tagged since September 2007.This is a list of animals which have been domesticated by humans. predict that morphologically domestic individualswill appear abruptly in assemblages previously dominated by wild forms,with little evidence for transitional morphologies. Zooarchaeologically,this process may be evident in the form of bimodal bi��mod��al?adj.1. Having or exhibiting two contrasting modes or forms: "American supermarket shopping shows bimodal behavior or 'peak andtail' distributions in biometric data indicating the presence ofbiometrically distinctive wild and domestic populations (Hachem 2001;Becker 2002; Albarella et al. 2006). The abrupt appearance of small-sized cattle in European Neolithiccultures such as the Linearbandkeramik (LBK LBK Lubbock (Texas)LBK Linearbandkeramik (European Archaeological Culture)LBK Landing Barge, Kitchen (US Navy)LBK Lutherske BekjennelseskirkeLBK Location-Based Key ), combined with thecontinued presence of robust aurochsen and absence of transitionalskeletal morphologies linking these populations, suggests that thesedomesticates were introduced via human migration and trade (Hachem 2001;DeschlerErb & Marti-Gradel 2004; Dobney & Larson 2006; Edwards& Bollongino 2007; Scheu et al. 2008). Comparable biometrical trendsidentified in cattle remains from southern Levantine Le��vant?1?The countries bordering on the eastern Mediterranean Sea from Turkey to Egypt.Le contexts havesimilarly been used in support of diffusionist models for the appearanceof domestic cattle during the Late PPNB (c. 6500 cal BC) (Becker 2002). Although the autochthonous and diffusionist models described aboveare commonly employed by zooarchaeologists, differentiating between theprocesses of diffusion and local domestication is likely to bedifficult, particularly if the dispersal of managed animals occurredduring the earliest stages of the domestication process when phenotypicdivergence is weakly expressed of completely lacking. The diffusion ofphenotypically 'primitive' managed cattle may presentcharacteristics of both models, including the rapid appearance ofmorphological domesticates but the continued presence of manyindividuals with transitional morphologies that fall within the area ofoverlap between wild and domestic populations. Alternatively; if theradiation of husbanded animals took place prior to the expression of anymorphological changes, as may have been the case in the early Neolithicof Cyprus (Vigne et al. 2003), then other lines of evidence, includingdemographic data and skeletal part representations, must be assessed inorder to distinguish between local domestication and diffusionistprocesses (e.g. Perkins & Daly 1968; Hesse 1978; Zeder 2006, 2008). Discussion Isolating the processes responsible for the initial appearance ofmorphologically domestic cattle in central Anatolia and establishingwhether it represents the beginnings of cattle management in the regionare complex problems. Given the prominent role of cattle at aceramic andearly Pottery Neolithic sites in the region (Russell et al. 2005), andthe evidence for diachronic changes in cattle exploitation in theCatalhoyuk stratigraphic sequence, local processes must be seriouslyconsidered as a possible explanation for the appearance of domesticcattle in central Anatolia. Moreover, since the origins of herdmanagement are thought to predate the appearance of morphologicalchanges by some considerable period of time (Zeder 2006), the relativelylate appearance of morphologically domestic cattle in the region doesnot necessarily mean that cattle husbandry was a late development aswell. Although the lack of detailed information describing the faunasrecovered from aceramic sites such as Asikli and Musular inhibits ourability to interpret cattle management in the early Neolithic, the datathat are currently available do not suggest that cattle were intensivelymanaged in central Anatolia prior to the appearance of morphologicaldomesticates at Erbaba at c. 6600 cal BC (Perkins & Daly 1968; deCupere & Duru 2003; Russell et al. 2005; Zeder 2008). It is possiblethat the changes in cattle exploitation documented in levels VI-IV atCatalhoyuk, just prior to the appearance of domestic cattle, may reflectthe early stages of a process of intensified management of wild cattlepopulations that, if left to develop uninterrupted, may have eventuallyled to the emergence of local domesticates (but see Russell & Martin2005). If so, this local process seems to have been truncated by theabrupt appearance of domesticates on the Konya Plain and in other partsof central Anatolia in the mid-seventh millennium. Unlike the situation at Merhgarh or Cayonu, where biometric dataindicate a gradual decrease in cattle size over a period of severalmillennia, suggesting local domestication processes, the abruptappearance of small-sized cattle at Erbaba, in the upper levels ofCatalhoyuk, and at Hoyucek in south-west Anatolia within the same narrowtime horizon provides little time depth for a process of localdomestication. This strongly suggests that the earliest morphologicallydomestic cattle in central Anatolia derive from previously domesticatedpopulations from neighbouring regions. In addition, the identificationof morphologically domestic cattle populations predating those incentral Anatolia from sites such as Yumuktepe on the southern coast ofAnatolia and Gurcutepe and Halula in the northern Levant Levant(ləvănt`)[Ital.,=east], collective name for the countries of the eastern shore of the Mediterranean from Egypt to, and including, Turkey. provideplausible sources for imported domesticated animals (Buitenhuis &Caneva 1998; Peters et al. 1999; von den Driesch & Peters 1999). Thepresence of wellworn trade networks involved in the movement ofobsidian, Mediterranean shells, and other commodities confirms thatcentral Anatolians were regularly engaged with other human populationsthroughout the Near East (Bar-Yosef 2001; Asouti 2006). Indeed, tradenetworks may have served as important conduits through which domesticcattle were transported and exchanged. Although the rapid appearance of morphological domesticates incentral Anatolia fits the predictions outlined by diffusion models, thepersistence of a high degree of variation in body size and the presenceof both very large and small cattle at Erbaba and Catahoyuk VII-Idiffers from examples of secondary diffusion of domesticates in regionssuch as Europe. This may be the result of several factors. First, thepresence of specimens exhibiting a wide range of sizes in the Erbaba andCatalhoyuk VII-I assemblages may be indicative of the diffusion ofphenotypically 'primitive' domesticates, which do not exhibitas great a degree of phenotypic divergence from wild populations as dodomesticates in later periods (e.g. Grigson 1989). However, given thesmall size and relatively low range of variation in biometric dataevident among domestic cattle at the contemporary site of Hoyucek, thearrival of primitive domestic cattle in central Anatolia does notexplain the full range of metrical variability visible in the Erbaba andCatalhoyuk assemblages. Instead, the continued presence of many large-sized cattle at thesesites likely indicates a continued exploitation of aurochsen, animalswhich may have not only served as supplements to the subsistenceeconomies at these settlements, particularly during the early stages ofincorporating domestic cattle into local subsistence systems, but alsomay have played an important role in social practices as well. AtCatalhoyuk, the hunting of aurochs featured in various socio-culturalpractices for a millennium prior to the appearance of cattle herding(Mellaart 1967; Meskell 2008), and evidently continued alongside herdingas an important part of the maintenance and management of social andpolitical relationships within this community. The apparent delay ofseveral centuries between the appearance of domestic cattle at Erbabaand their adoption at Catalhoyuk may be related to the central role ofaurochs hunting at the latter settlement. Some of the inhabitants ofCatalhoyuk, whose social position and identity may have been maintainedby and deeply embedded within the practices surrounding cattle hunting,may have actively resisted the ideological as well as economic changesassociated with incorporating cattle into the domestic sphere. Finally, the continued presence of morphologically wild cattle atErbaba and Catalhoyuk after the adoption of cattle herding may be due tobreeding practices that included the recruitment of local aurochsen intomanaged herds (Gotherstrom et al. 2005; Beja-Pereira et al. 2006). Thepresence at Catalhoyuk of wall-paintings that may depict captured wildcattle (Mellaart 1967: Plate 64; Hodder 2006: Plate 15), suggests thatNeolithic hunters may have at least occasionally brought aurochsen undercontrol in order to provide high value and symbolically powerful animalsfor specific cultural events. If this highly risky and presumablysocially rewarding behaviour continued following the importation ofdomestic cattle at the site, it is possible that wild individuals,especially bulls, were allowed or encouraged to breed with domesticfemales, a practice that would effectively reduce the pace of phenotypicdivergence within those domestic populations. Conclusion Although no longer considered to be an early centre for cattledomestication, central Anatolia remains an important region fordocumenting the initial spread of managed cattle outside of the middleEuphrates region and for assessing the modes and mechanisms by whichdomestic cattle became incorporated into local Neolithic economies. Thecombination of size diminution, harvesting of juvenile animals, andon-site butchering of cattle at Erbaba suggest that domestic cattle maketheir first appearance in central Anatolia by c. 6500 cal BC. The use ofmorphologically domestic cattle in south-western Anatolia by 6400/6200cal BC (de Cupere & Duru 2003), and to the east on the Konya Plainbetween 63006000 cal BC suggests a rapid incorporation of domesticcattle into central Anatolian subsistence economies that had beenpreviously characterised by large-scale sheep and goat herding for morethan a millennium (Martin et al. 2002; Russell & Martin 2005;Arbuckle 2006, 2008). Although we acknowledge that the initiation of animal managementpractices likely preceded the expression of domestic phenotypes inmanaged populations, we argue that the appearance of morphologicallydomestic cattle at Erbaba, and slightly later at Catalhoyuk, representsthe earliest use of husbanded cattle in central Anatolia. Theassimilation of primitive domestic cattle into local Neolithic economieslikely entailed a complex management strategy that involved thesimultaneous use of husbanded animals, initially obtained viaextra-local sources, and regular maintenance of domesticates byintroducing local aurochs into managed herds. Significantly, deeplyengrained local traditions centered on aurochs hunting persisted incentral Anatolia, although on a smaller scale than practiced in previousperiods. Moreover, the possibility that the appearance of domesticcattle in central Anatolia may have truncated the development of anautochthonous process of increasingly intensive management of wildcattle at Catalhoyuk further emphasises the importance of regional andintra-regional variation when addressing the development and spread ofNeolithic technologies. Acknowledgements Analysis of the Erbaba faunal assemblage was supported by theZooarchaeology Laboratory, Harvard University Harvard University,mainly at Cambridge, Mass., including Harvard College, the oldest American college.Harvard CollegeHarvard College, originally for men, was founded in 1636 with a grant from the General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. as well as the PeabodyMuseum The Peabody Museum can refer to several museums founded by or dedicated to George Peabody: George Peabody House Museum at his birthplace in Peabody, Massachusetts Peabody Leather Museum in Peabody, Massachusetts of Ethnology ethnology(ĕthnŏl`əjē), scientific study of the origin and functioning of human cultures. It is usually considered one of the major branches of cultural anthropology, the other two being anthropological archaeology and and Archaeology. Richard Meadow, Stine Rossel Stine Rossel is a Danish archaeologist. She works at the University of Copenhagen. Her interests include zooarchaeology, the effects of environmental change on animal use, and the rise of complex societies. ,Levent Atici, Peter Burns and Tonya Largy provided help in all stages ofthis research and this is gratefully acknowledged. Financial support forthis research was provided by grants from the American ResearchInstitute in Turkey, the University Research Committee and the ViceProvost for Research at Baylor University Baylor University,mainly at Waco, Tex.; coeducational; chartered and opened 1845 by Baptists (see Baylor, Robert E. B.) at Independence, moved 1886 and absorbed Waco Univ. (chartered 1861). The library has a noted Robert Browning collection. , and NSF NSF - National Science Foundation Grant BCS-0530699.Biometric data for the Erbaba cattle are available by request (pleasecontact Arbuckle). Received: 14 October 2008; Accepted: 27 November 2008; Revised: 21January 2009 References ALBARELLA, U., K. DOBNEY & P.A. ROWLEY-CONWY. 2006. 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Berkeley (CA): University ofCalifornia Press. --2008. Domestication and early agriculture in the MediterraneanBasin: origins, diffusion, and impact. Proceedings of the NationalAcademy of Sciences 105: 11597-604. Benjamin S. Arbuckle (1) & Cheryl A. Makarewicz (2) (1) Department of Anthropology, Forensic Science The application of scientific knowledge and methodology to legal problems and criminal investigations.Sometimes called simply forensics, forensic science encompasses many different fields of science, including anthropology, biology, chemistry, engineering, genetics, and Archaeology,Baylor University, One Bear Place 97173, Waco TX, 76798-7173, USA(Email: benjamin_arbuckle@baylor.edu) (2) Stanford Archaeology Center, Stanford University, 488 EscondidoMall, Stanford CA, 94305, USATable 1. Approximate dates for central Anatolian Neolithic sitesmentioned in the text (Cessford 2001; Thissen 2002; De Cupere & Duru2003).Central Anatolian Neolithic sites Approximate dates (cal BC)Asilch Hoyuk 8400-7400Musular 7500-7000Suberde 7400-7000Catalhoyuk pre-XII to I 7400-6000Erbaba Hoyuk 6600-6100Hoyucek 6400/6200-6000Table 2. Radiocarbon dates from Erbaba. Dates on charcoal are fromBordaz and Alper-Bordaz (1982).Sample # Context Material [sup.14C] Date bpAAG6738 level III bone collagen 7275 [+ or -] 42AA66739 level III bone collagen 7504 [+ or -] 85AA6G741 level I bone collagen 7677 [+ or -] 86GX-2545 level III charcoal 7530 [+ or -] 430GX-2544 level III charcoal 6925 [+ or -] 550I-5151 level III charcoal 7730 [+ or -] 120GX-2543 level II-I charcoal 7550 [+ or -] 570 Calibrated 1 Sigma range 2 Sigma rangeSample # years BC cal BC cal BCAAG6738 6143 [+ or -] 49 6211-G079 6226-6059AA66739 6354 [+ or -] 83 6441-G257 6560-6118AA6G741 6533 [+ or -] 79 6596-6453 6686-6392GX-2545 6518 [+ or -] 478 7025-5998 7485-S661GX-2544 590G [+ or -] 595 6432-5318 7170-4715I-5151 6615 [+ or -] 151 6687-6444 7029-6389GX-2543 6606 [+ or -] 642 7140-5850 7962-5383Table 3. Relative frequency of mammalian tasa at Erbaba based onspecimen counts. 'Other' includes carnivores, hue and rodents. I II III All levels N % N % N % N %caprines 1606 73.3 261 71.7 717 83.9 3012 76.8cattle 122 5.6 32 8.9 34 4.0 216 5.5pig 232 10.6 35 9.6 44 5.1 347 8.8red deer 82 3.7 15 4.1 23 2.7 126 3.2fallow 58 2.7 12 3.3 9 1.1 83 2.1and roedeerequid 4 <1.0 1 <1.0 0 0.0 7 <1.0other 87 4.0 8 2.2 27 3.2 130 3.3Total 2191 100.0 364 100.0 854 100.0 3921 100.0Table 4. Relative frequency of mammalian taxa at Erbaba based on boneweight. 'Other' includes carnivores, hare and rodents. I II weight (g) % weight (g) %caprines 14099.9 48.8 2174.2 39.2cattle 7078.7 24.5 1864.8 33.6pig 3889.4 13.4 776.2 14.0red deer 2800.2 9.7 542.2 9.8fallow and 485.0 1.7 140.7 2.5 roe deerequid 132.0 <1.0 20.2 <1.0other 410.0 1.4 31.9 <1.0Total 28895.2 100.0 5550.2 100.0 III All levels weight (g) % weight (g) %caprines 5380.3 62.2 24670.0 50.9cattle 1737.1 20.1 11525.0 23.8pig 604.7 7.0 5593.3 11.5red deer 758.8 8.8 4926.0 10.2fallow and 71.1 <1.0 894.1 1.8 roe deerequid 0.0 0.0 230.8 <1.0other 96.0 1.1 598.9 1.2Total 8648.0 100.0 48438.1 100.0Table 5. Matrix showing the results of two-tailedMann-Whitney U tests comparing LSI values betweenassemblages. Significant differences are listed inbold type. Catal 1 represents levels pre-XII throughN, while Catal 2 representslevels VII-I. Catal 1 Catal 2 Hoyucek Sabi AbyadErbaba U 4756 5626.5 3376 7441 z 7.67 -0.73 2.49 -1.89 p <0.0001 0.4654 0.0128 0.0588Catal 1 U -- 4063.5 1999 4014.5 z -- 7.06 8.94 8.87 p -- <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001