Something fishy in the Neolithic? A re-evaluation of stable isotope analysis of Mesolithic and Neolithic coastal populations.

Something fishy in the Neolithic? A re-evaluation of stable isotope analysis of Mesolithic and Neolithic coastal populations. Introduction The case for a rapid abandonment of marine resources along thecoastlines of Northwest Europe at the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition(c. 4000 cal BC) has recently gained momentum with a series ofpalaeodietary stable-isotope investigations on human bone (Richards& Hedges 1999a, 1999b; Schulting & Richards 2002a, 2002b;Richards 2003; Richards, Price & Koch 2003; Richards, Schulting& Hedges 2003). When Tauber (1981) first announced the results ofisotope analysis Isotope analysis is the identification of isotopic signature, the distribution of certain stable isotopes and chemical elements within chemical compounds. This can be applied to a food web to make it possible to draw direct inferences regarding diet, trophic level, and subsistence. of human skeletons in Denmark over 20 years ago, hisresults had little impact on wider archaeological interpretation. Thesample size of human skeletons was small, chronologically dispersed, andconfined to Denmark. It was possible to argue that the apparentlydramatic change in his data, from Mesolithic individuals who are mostlymarine protein to Early Neolithic individuals who ate none, would bemoderated by larger and more geographically varied samples, not leastbecause most of his Neolithic samples were inland and most of hisMesolithic ones coastal. The more recent work, however, seems to confirmthe original pattern with a larger sample of material, not only inDenmark, but more widely in Britain, as well as France (Shulting &Richards 2001) and Portugal (Lubell et al. 1994). Moreover, the newer generation of results uses stable isotopes ofnitrogen Nitrogen (N)Standard atomic mass: 14.0067(2) u Tablenuclidesymbol Z(p) N(n) isotopic mass (u) half-life nuclearspin representativeisotopiccomposition(mole fraction) range of naturalvariation(mole fraction) as well as carbon. The carbon in marine organisms is obtainedfrom seawater seawaterWater that makes up the oceans and seas. Seawater is a complex mixture of 96.5% water, 2.5% salts, and small amounts of other substances. Much of the world's magnesium is recovered from seawater, as are large quantities of bromine. , which is enriched in [sup.13]C relative to [sup.12]C,whereas the heavier isotope of nitrogen, [sup.15]N, is progressivelyenriched relative to [sup.14]N as organisms occupy higher trophic trophic/tro��phic/ (tro��fik) (trof��ik) pertaining to nutrition. troph��icadj.Of, relating to, or characterized by nutrition. levelsin food chains, whether they are marine or terrestrial. Cod, forexample, are secondary carnivores, whereas cattle are herbivores, withcorresponding differences in their nitrogen isotope composition. Thefact that two independent parameters apparently point in the samedirection seems to confirm the reliability of the results. The shift from Mesolithic diets dominated by marine protein toNeolithic diets in which marine protein is absent appears to be abrupt,widespread and sudden. Some commentators have used the isotope resultsto suggest that Neolithic peoples did nor simply ignore marine resourcesin favour of the new agricultural economy, but actively rejected them aspart of a new web of food taboos, religious beliefs and myths about thesea (Richards 2003; Thomas 2003). Others have urged caution (Bailey& Milner 2002; Liden et al. 2003; cf. Parkington 1991 and Sealy& van der Merwe 1992), drawing attention to potential biases anduntested assumptions in the isotope technique and contradictions withother sources of palaeodietary information. Our aim in this paper is to take a critical look at the isotoperesults in relation to other sources of evidence and to reconcile theapparent differences between them, with particular emphasis on coastalsites in Britain and southern Scandinavia. Our starting point Noun 1. starting point - earliest limiting pointterminus a quocommencement, get-go, offset, outset, showtime, starting time, beginning, start, kickoff, first - the time at which something is supposed to begin; "they got an early start"; "she knew from the is theclear contradiction between archaeological sources of informationretrieved from early Neolithic sites, which show substantial evidencefor the continuation of marine subsistence activities, and the currentinterpretations of isotope data, which claim proof of the abandonment ofmarine subsistence in the Neolithic. We consider three issues: 1 Archaeological evidence for palaeodiet 2 Sample bias in the human skeletons used for isotope analysis 3 The interpretation of stable isotope stable isotopen.An isotope of an element that shows no tendency to undergo radioactive breakdown. data The archaeological evidence Denmark has one of the richest late Mesolithic and Neolithicarchaeological records in coastal western Europe Western EuropeThe countries of western Europe, especially those that are allied with the United States and Canada in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (established 1949 and usually known as NATO). , thanks to isostatic i��sos��ta��sy?n.Equilibrium in the earth's crust such that the forces tending to elevate landmasses balance the forces tending to depress landmasses. uplift of the ancient shoreline in the north of the country. TheMesolithic Ertebolle culture, 5400-3900 cal BC, is famous for its largenumber of coastal sites and shell mounds with their abundant evidence offishing, shell-gathering and sea-mammal hunting (Andersen 1993, 2000).More recently, underwater excavations on the now submerged Ertebolleshoreline in the south have revealed coastal sites with spectacularconditions of organic preservation including evidence of wooden fishtraps, fish spears and boats (Malm n. 1. A kind of brick of a light brown or yellowish color, made of sand, clay, and chalk. 1995). However, there has long been evidence for the continuation of alltypes of marine subsistence activity in early Neolithic depositsassociated with the TRB TRB Transportation Research BoardTRB Technical Review BoardTRB Teacher Registration BoardTRB Test Review BoardTRB Total Relationship BalanceTRB Tap-Rack-Bang (shooting procedure)TRB Theodore Roosevelt Building culture, and this is reinforced by recentexcavations. Neolithic shell mounds of substantial thickness and extent,often stratified stratified/strat��i��fied/ (strat��i-fid) formed or arranged in layers. strat��i��fiedadj.Arranged in the form of layers or strata. above Ertebolle shell layers, are present at Norsminde,Bjornsholm and Visborg, the latter two being amongst the biggest shellmounds in Denmark (Andersen 1989, 1993, 2000). Krabbesholm, currentlyunder excavation, is another large mound, which is mainly of EarlyNeolithic date. At Norsminde, analysis of the marine molluscs shows thatthe rate of accumulation of shells was just as high throughout theNeolithic period Neolithic periodor New Stone Age.The term neolithic is used, especially in archaeology and anthropology, to designate a stage of cultural evolution or technological development characterized by the use of stone tools, the existence of as in the preceding Mesolithic, and that the pressureof human exploitation on the shell beds was, if anything, somewhatgreater than in the Mesolithic (Bailey & Milner in press). Othersuch sites with Early Neolithic deposits and evidence of marineactivities, notably seal-hunting, are Sebber, Dyrholm II, Havno (Madsenet al. 1900), Solager and Hesselo (Skaarup 1973), Lyo, Lang, Munkholm,Bramsnaes Vig, Frennemark, Lindo, Orum Aa, Oslos, Anholt and Aalborg(Andersen 1991; Degerbol 1933; Mohl 1971). Whale bone has also beenfound at Lindo (Degerbol 1933). Fish bones are less well represented inthese Neolithic middens than in earlier deposits, although they arecertainly present, notably at Bjornsholm (Andersen 1991), and Pedersen(1995: 83) has described fish traps or structures from twelve coastalsites either from underwater or waterlogged conditions, of which fiveare dated to the Early Neolithic. In Denmark, there is good evidence for continuity in coastal siteoccupation from the Mesolithic into the Neolithic which intuitivelycontradicts any suggested abrupt and radical change in the subsistencebone. However, several authors have suggested that these Neolithiccoastal sites were the task-specific camps of farmers, used for fishing,shell-gathering or sea-mammal hunting as the case might be, and that themain settlements were now located inland (Bailey 1982; Rowley-Conwy1983; Johansen 1997). If that is correct, it seems likely that much ofthe food collected there would have been removed for consumption atsettlement sites elsewhere. Sea mammals are bulky animals and theirhunters are likely to have butchered the carcasses on the spot anddiscarded the less desirable parts before moving elsewhere. Similarly,molluscs are much easier to transport after removal of the shells (Bird& Bliege Bird 1997). With fish, on the other hand, unless they arevery large animals, preliminary processing makes little difference toease of transport, so that fish bones are less likely to be representedin specialist coastal camps than other resources. Soils at inlandNeolithic sites are not conducive to bone preservation, but if ourhypothesis is correct, some evidence of fish consumption shouldeventually be forthcoming from hinterland sites. Whatever the precise function of these Early Neolithic coastalsites, the evidence of marine subsistence, covering the full range ofresources, is not in doubt. Conversely, there is considerable evidencefor the hunting of land mammals during the Ertebolle period. Many shellmounds contain bone remains of wild cattle, red deer Red Deer, city, CanadaRed Deer,city (1991 pop. 58,134), S central Alta., Canada, on the Red Deer River. It developed as a trade and service center for a region of dairying and mixed farming. , roe deer and boar,especially on the Jutland Peninsula with its larger area of land andhigher animal biomass, and evidence for the use of the bow and arrow bow and arrow,weapon consisting of two parts; the bow is made of a strip of flexible material, such as wood, with a cord linking the two ends of the strip to form a tension from which is propelled the arrow; the arrow is a straight shaft with a sharp point on one . Onthe Jutland Peninsula, there is also evidence of inland hunting at thesite of Ringkloster (Andersen 1998), and extensive flint scatters in thehinterland, mostly surface finds without stratigraphic stra��tig��ra��phy?n.The study of rock strata, especially the distribution, deposition, and age of sedimentary rocks.strat context orassociated organic materials, but including diagnostic artefacts of theErtebolle period. Inland sites are also present in the Amose bog regionof central Zealand. In Britain, the evidence for marine exploitation is less, becausefar more of the prehistoric British coastline is now submerged. Thewell-known Mesolithic shell middens on the uplifted shorelines ofScotland (Bonsall 1996; Coles 1971 ; Hardy & Wickham-Jones 2002;Mellars 1987), show little evidence of continuity into the ensuingNeolithic period. There are, however, some substantial oyster shellmounds known from the River Forth estuary, which indicate continuousoccupation between about 5000 and 3000 cal BC, including deposits withtypical Neolithic ceramics and domestic animals (Sloan 1984, 1989).Similar substantial oyster mounds of Neolithic and later date arepresent on the west and north coast of Ireland (Burenhult 1984; Milner& Woodman unpublished data). Fishing is also well represented atNeolithic sites in the Orkneys (Childe 1931; Wheeler 1979). The notion that the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition ischaracterised by a shift from diets dominated by marine protein to dietsin which it is absent looks like an oversimplification o��ver��sim��pli��fy?v. o��ver��sim��pli��fied, o��ver��sim��pli��fy��ing, o��ver��sim��pli��fiesv.tr.To simplify to the point of causing misrepresentation, misconception, or error.v.intr. or anover-exaggeration in relation to this substantial and widely distributed Adj. 1. widely distributed - growing or occurring in many parts of the world; "a cosmopolitan herb"; "cosmopolitan in distribution"cosmopolitanbionomics, environmental science, ecology - the branch of biology concerned with the relations between organisms body of archaeological evidence. We are well aware that dietaryreconstructions from food remains in archaeological deposits are subjectto biases and uncertainties of their own, but the fact that marine foodspersist in Verb 1. persist in - do something repeatedly and showing no intention to stop; "We continued our research into the cause of the illness"; "The landlord persists in asking us to move"continue Neolithic deposits at a time when the isotope data suggestotherwise, and that there is a continuity of occupation at productivecoastal locations through that transition indicates that we must lookmore widely for sources of error. Either the isotope analysis issampling a different subset of individuals from those who consumed themarine foods represented in Neolithic deposits, or the results of stableisotope analyses have been imprecisely interpreted. Sample bias One reason for the difference between isotope and archaeologicalresults may be that these are measuring different phenomena. Thearchaeological data refer to generalised dietary tendencies over longperiods in specific local environments or site catchments. The isotopedata front human bone is often cited to provide information on thedominant protein intake by an individual during the last 10 years ofhis/her life. To put matters into perspective, let us consider how manyindividuals are represented by the isotope data (summarised in Figure 1)in relation to the size of the regional populations that might haveoccupied Britain and Scandinavia over the relevant period. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] In Scotland, the entire Mesolithic human bone assemblage consistsof incomplete and partial remains of seven individuals from the Oronsayshell middens dating to the fifth millennium cal BC (Meiklejohn &Denston 1987). Four bones have been analysed by stable isotope analysisand dated by AMS AMS - Andrew Message System , representing a minimum of three individuals (Richards& Mellars 1998; Richards & Sheridan 2000). In the rest ofBritain, eleven further measurements have been made on disarticulatedhumans, mainly from coastal cave sites in Wales, representing perhapsten individuals (Schulting & Richards 2002b), of which only threeactually date from the sixth to the fourth millennium cal BC. Overall,only seven individuals from the whole of Britain date to thetwo-thousand-year period prior to the transition to agriculture. For theNeolithic, stable isotope analysis has been performed on 67 bone samplesfrom 22 coastal sites from the fourth millennium cal BC, includingchambered tombs, causewayed enclosures (Scott 1961; Whittle &Wysocki 1998) and interments in caves (Schulting & Richards 2000,2002a, 2002b). It is hard to assess the minimum number of individuals(MNI See Merom New Instructions. ) represented. At Carding Mill Bay, the eleven measurements mayrepresent four individuals (Schulting & Richards 2002a), or perhapsonly two (Connock et al. 1992). In Southern Scandinavia, with its greater variety of burialpractices and the 'cemeteries' of Vedbaek Bogebakken andSkateholm, there are stable isotope measurements and radiocarbon datesfrom eighteen individuals in Ertebolle contexts at fourteen sites. From Early Neolithic funnel beaker (TRB) contexts, only sixindividuals have been analysed, and these include three from the StoreAmose bog on Zealand, over 25 km from the coast (Richards & Koch2001). A further four individuals, previously considered to be LateErtebolle, may also date to the Early Neolithic. We can arrive at some very conservative estimates of totalpopulation size for Mesolithic Britain by using a population density of0.1 individuals per [km.sup.2] (at the low end of the range forethnographically known hunter-gatherers), and a total land area of 150000 [km.sup.2], giving a total standing population of 15 000. If weassume a generational turnover of 25 years, and a time depth of 2000years, we arrive at a total estimate of the number of people who livedin late Mesolithic Britain of 1 200 000. Let us call it 1 million forthe sake of simplicity. The seven individuals for which we have isotopeinformation thus represent 0.000007 per cent of the total potentialpopulation. For Denmark, the position is slightly better, with 18individuals and a smaller land area, though one that arguably was ableto support higher population densities because of the high proportion ofproductive coastline. For the Neolithic, we have at most ten individualsin Denmark and about double that number in Britain, perhaps in relationto higher population densities associated with an agricultural economyand a shorter time span. These population estimates are only anillustrative guide, but give some idea of orders of magnitude. No doubtit could be argued that most archaeological data represent a tinyfraction of the totality of past human activity, and that confidence inpatterning depends on consistent results from diverse contexts. However,the limited sample size urges caution in interpretation. In Figure 1, we show all the available radiocarbon dates,calibrated and corrected for the marine reservoir effect (see Figure 1caption), plotted against the [[delta].sup.13]C values for all measuredbone samples in the UK and Southern Scandinavia dating to 2000 yearseither side of the transition II. In neither Britain nor Scandinavia isthe evidence for a rapid transition compelling. In both, there appearsto be a narrowing of the dietary range from the Mesolithic to theNeolithic, but with considerable overlap at the Mesolithic-Neolithictransition. In Britain (Figure 1a), the Mesolithic data cover a widerange of marine and terrestrial diets, and suggest that terrestrialresources were as important on the coast for some individuals as marine(Schulting & Richards 2002a, 2002b). Similarly, in Denmark (Figure 1b), there is considerable dietaryvariation throughout the Mesolithic (Fischer 2002), with some evidenceof heavy marine exploitation in the latest phase. However, in the EarlyNeolithic period, individuals with both extreme marine and extremeterrestrial isotope values are present, although there is disagreementover their date. The key site is Dragsholm, which has played a prominentrole in the argument for a rapid change from marine to terrestrialresources at the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition (Tauber 1981; Richards,Price & Koch 2003). Here there are two female skeletons, one ofwhich has a marine isotopic signature An isotopic signature (also isotopic fingerprint) is a ratio of stable or unstable isotopes of particular elements found in an investigated material. The atomic mass of different isotopes affect their chemical kinetic behavior, leading to natural isotope separation processes. , interred only two metres awayfrom a male skeleton with a terrestrial signature and grave goods In archaeology and anthropology grave goods are the items buried along with the body.They are usually personal possessions, supplies to smooth the deceased's journey into the afterlife or offerings to the gods. Grave goods are a type of votive deposit. attributed to the TRB culture. Richards, Price and Koch (2003) maintainthat the female burial with a marine diet is several generations olderthan the male, thus placing them either side of the Mesolithic-Neolithicboundary (Figure 2). However, the dates could equally well be argued toindicate contemporaneity, especially since we do not know the precisecorrection to be applied to the date of the female to allow for themarine reservoir effect. Indeed Fischer (2002) suggests that the threeskeletons may represent 'a man and his wives'. [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] This raises the possibility of another confounding variable A confounding variable (also confounding factor, lurking variable, a confound, or confounder) is an extraneous variable in a statistical or research model that should have been experimentally controlled, but was not. , andthat is intra-population dietary variation related to gender, age orstatus. These variations are widely reported in the ethnographicliterature of hunter-gatherers (e.g. Meehan 1982; Moss 1993). Women,children and older individuals often have greater dependence on smalland more easily accessible foods such as shellfish, plant food and smallanimals, while men hunt and eat more of the larger and less predictableresources like large mammals and fish. In the ranked hunter-gatherersocieties of the North-west coast of North America North America,third largest continent (1990 est. pop. 365,000,000), c.9,400,000 sq mi (24,346,000 sq km), the northern of the two continents of the Western Hemisphere. , food taboos applieddifferentially to individuals of different status. Amongst the Tlingit,shellfish were taboo because of their association with sexuality anddisease, but the rules were more relaxed for women than for men, and forpeople of low status who depended on shellfood than for people of highstatus who could afford to avoid it (Moss 1993). We might thus constructa variety of speculative scenarios in which Mesolithic burials aresystematically biased towards individuals of high status with dietshigher in marine protein than the norm, while high status in theNeolithic might have been associated with preferential access to thefoods provided by the new agricultural economy. Equally, however, weaccept that there might be no such bias, or none sufficient to accountfor the consistent change in Neolithic isotope values, and while webelieve that the analysis of isotopes by gender and other indicators ofstatus offers a potentially fruitful line of enquiry (e.g. Schulting& Richards 2002a), we do not pursue this theme further. Stable isotope values and human diets Considering the continued evidence for marine food remainsthroughout the Neolithic, do the isotope data necessarily imply thecomplete abandonment of marine foods in this period? To address thisquestion, we assess how stable isotope data have been interpreted.Estimating the proportion of marine foods in human diets from stablecarbon and nitrogen isotope measurements is based on the followingassumptions, outlined by Richards & Hedges (1999a): 1 Human bone collagen composition reflects the diet averaged over5-10 years prior to death. 2 Stable isotope ratios in human bone collagen only reflect theprotein portion of the diet, and therefore the lipid and carbohydratecomponents are effectively 'invisible'. 3 The offset between dietary protein and the consumer's bonecollagen is 0-1 per mil per milalso per milladv.Per thousand.[per + mil (short for Latin m for [delta][sup.13]C and c. 3 per mil for[delta][sup.15]N. 4 Variations in the nutritional quality of the diet, and inparticular the proportion of protein to carbohydrate, do not affect anyof the above assumptions 5 The dietary end-members, i.e. the [delta][sup.13]C and[[delta].sup.15]N values that correspond to the extremes of a purelymarine and purely terrestrial diet, are approximately known. The key question that we focus on here is how accurately isotopevalues can reconstruct the proportion of marine and terrestrial foods ina diet that combines both in varying proportions. In this respect, wehave no reason to question assumptions (1) or (3), but the otherassumptions require careful scrutiny. In order to correct radiocarbondates, as in Figure 1, we can roughly estimate the percentage of marinecarbon in a bone collagen sample by linear interpolation Linear interpolation is a method of curve fitting using linear polynomials. It is heavily employed in mathematics (particularly numerical analysis), and numerous applications including computer graphics. It is a simple form of interpolation. between maximumand minimum [delta][sup.13]C values, defined by the known dietaryend-members (assumption five). While this is adequate for correction ofradiocarbon dates, absolute [delta][sup.13]C measurements may notaccurately correspond to direct consumption of marine foods, because themarine and terrestrial end-members may vary considerably, bothtemporally and spatially, depending on the broader isotope ecology. Marine carbon can be incorporated into human bone collagen withoutdirect consumption of marine foods. Marine detritus detritus/de��tri��tus/ (de-tri��tus) particulate matter produced by or remaining after the wearing away or disintegration of a substance or tissue. de��tri��tusn. pl. can enter theterrestrial food chain through the action of beach scavengers (Polls& Hurd 1996) or through anthropogenic an��thro��po��gen��ic?adj.1. Of or relating to anthropogenesis.2. Caused by humans: anthropogenic degradation of the environment. practices, such as manuringand foddering with various marine products of which there is amplehistorical evidence (e.g. Brand 1883; Kemp 1801). However, it is theconverse of this last point that may explain the discrepancy between theisotopic and other archaeological evidence, i.e. consumption of marinefoods does nor always result in a marine stable isotope value. Carbonfrom terrestrial organic detritus and dissolved inorganic carbon fromthe dissolution of pre-Quaternary carbonates in rocks and sediments canenter the marine food chain at various trophic levels, primarily viariver systems (Riera & Richard 1996). The greatest effect is likelyto be on 'stationary' marine organisms, such as molluscs,which are often collected from estuaries, and may have consumedsignificant amounts of terrestrial carbon. In fact, studies havedemonstrated large variations (-14 to -23 per mil) in the[[delta].sup.13]C values of annelid worms caught in UK estuaries(Nithart 2000). Interpreting diets based on stable isotope measurementof humans exploiting lagoons and estuaries is therefore always likely tobe difficult Understanding the stable isotope ecology of 'open' seasis not always straightforward either. Here too, there exists variationin [delta][sup.13]C values of marine organisms. Isotope measurements ofseals and pelagic pelagicliving in the middle or near the surface of large bodies of water such as lakes or oceans. fish obtained from shallow seas such as the Baltic aresignificantly depleted in [delta][sup.13]C compared to the same speciesfrom the Atlantic (e.g. Eriksson 2003; Barrett et al. 2002; Richards& Mellars 2000). At the site of Norsminde on Jutland in Denmark,similarly large differences in [delta][sup.13]C have been observed in anumber of seal bones, identified to a single species (Craig, unpublisheddata), perhaps indicating variations in the feeding grounds betweenindividual animals. As salinity correlates with the [delta][sup.13]Cvalues of marine organisms (Eriksson & Liden 2002), changes insalinity through time complicate dietary inferences. An extreme butrelevant example is the Baltic, where intrusion of salt watereffectively transformed a lacustrine la��cus��trine?adj.1. Of or relating to lakes.2. Living or growing in or along the edges of lakes.[French or Italian lacustre (from Latin lacus, lake) + environment to a brackish brack��ish?adj.1. Having a somewhat salty taste, especially from containing a mixture of seawater and fresh water: "You could cut the brackish winds with a knife/Here in Nantucket" onebetween 6500 and 5300 cal BC (Emeis et al., 2003) with the effect ofincreasing [delta][sup.13]C values. In the millennia prior to theMesolithic/ Neolithic transition (3900 cal BC), salinity is estimated tohave fluctuated rapidly and [delta][sup.13]C values over this period mayhave varied by as much as 4 per mil before increasing steadily in thefourth millennium cal BC (Emeis et al., 2003). Therefore, palaeodietary interpretations of stable isotope valuesneed to be put into the wider context of the changing isotope ecology,and not read off by simply equating diet with the estimated percentageof marine carbon in bone collagen based on [delta][sup.13]Cmeasurements. The only secure way to do this is to make extensive stableisotope measurements on organisms represented in archaeological depositsassociated with the human bone, and in particular marine molluscs, fishand marine mammals. Unfortunately, in part due to the poor survival andrecovery of bone, adequate measurements on associated marine fauna haveonly rarely been made and are seldom reported with the amalgamated a��mal��ga��mate?v. a��mal��ga��mat��ed, a��mal��ga��mat��ing, a��mal��ga��matesv.tr.1. To combine into a unified or integrated whole; unite. See Synonyms at mix.2. humandatasets. Without such data, we do not think it can be asserted withconfidence that the low [delta][sup.13]C values from Neolithic humansdemonstrate the total absence of marine foods in their diets. Finally, we consider the validity of assumptions (2) and (4),listed above. In a series of experiments on rats fed controlled diets,Ambrose and Norr (1993) concluded that dietary proteins were directlyrouted into bone collagen, thus supporting the validity of assumption(2)--the 'direct' model. However, this result was modulated bythe percentage of protein in the diet. When the rats were fed lowprotein diets (c. five per cent protein), carbon from lipids andcarbohydrates contributed 49-58 per cent of the carbon in theircollagen, thus supporting the 'mixed' model. Using a similarapproach, Tieszen and Farge (1993) showed that rats fed high starchdiets assimilated carbon from this carbohydrate source into their bonecollagen. Fogel & Tuross (2003) compared carbon isotope ratios ofindividual amino acids from the collagen of prehistoric humanhunter-gatherers and maize agriculturalists with those obtained fromherbivore herbivore:see carnivore. herbivoreAnimal adapted to subsist solely on plant tissues. Herbivores range from insects (e.g., aphids) to large mammals (e.g., elephants), but the term is most often applied to ungulates. bone collagen and modern plants. In the protein-richhunter-gatherer diet, amino acids in human collagen were highlycorrelated with amino acids in herbivore collagen, supporting the directmodel. In contrast, the bone collagen of the maize agriculturalistsshowed a closer correlation with total dietary carbon rather than withprotein carbon alone, supporting the mixed model. In other words Adv. 1. in other words - otherwise stated; "in other words, we are broke"put differently , whenthe amount of protein in the diet is low, carbon in collagen is derivedfrom a mixture of dietary components including carbohydrate and lipid,as well as protein. Thus, a diet based on high proportions of plantfoods, and with low proportions of animal protein, should generate arelatively depressed [delta][sup.13]C value in bone collagen. Thiseffect will be further exaggerated because the carbon in thecarbohydrate component of a particular foodstuff is isotopicallydepleted in [delta][sup.13]C relative to the protein component (Galimov1985). If the protein component of such a mixed diet were from marinesources, the marine signal would be significantly moderated. Preliminarymodels (produced by Hedges in the volume) show that a diet dominated byplant-food might include up to 20 per cent of marine protein withoutraising the [delta][sup.13]C values of bone collagen above -21 per rail;this would standardly by interpreted as a diet dominated by terrestrialfood. This model is particularly appropriate to grain agriculturalistswith low protein diets, and thus of particular relevance to Neolithicfarmers in coastal areas. Therefore, carbon isotope measurementsindicating extreme terrestrial values in Figure 1 may be compatible withdiets comprising up to 20 per cent of marine food and certainly do notdemonstrate the complete abandonment of marine resources. Conversely,diets rich in protein but also incorporating terrestrial plants foodsare likely to exaggerate the marine signal in bone collagen. We suggestthat the relationship between the percentage of marine carbon in humanbone collagen and the proportion of marine foods in the diet isnon-linear, with a tendency to exaggerate the extremes, and that theapparently marked shift in isotope values at the Mesolithic-Neolithictransition could have been exaggerated by the introduction of cerealagriculture. These considerations do not affect nitrogen values because lipidsand carbohydrates contain no nitrogen, so that incorporation of thiselement into bone collagen is always from dietary protein. A reductionin the [delta][sup.15]N values of Neolithic coastal populations comparedto Mesolithic populations is observed, suggesting less consumption ofmarine foods in the Neolithic. However, the Neolithic values are notgenerally so light (i.e. less that 8 per mil) as to exclude theconsumption of substantial amounts of marine food (e.g. 20 per cent).This last point is even more significant, if the diet includes marinefoods occupying a low trophic level trophic leveln.A group of organisms that occupy the same position in a food chain.trophic level, such as the major edible molluscs,or is composed of higher trophic level marine foods mixed withsubstantial amounts of plant materials. Finally, it has been noted thatin southern Britain the stable nitrogen isotope values of EarlyNeolithic individuals interred in inland chambered tombs, such asHazleton and West Kennet, are significantly lighter than thecontemporary tombs on the coast (Richards 2000). It is interesting tospeculate whether these differences could be the result of the higherconsumption of marine foods at coastal locations. Conclusion Measurements of stable isotope values in human bone collagen are avaluable additional tool in the interpretation of ancient diets, butthey are not a panacea or a substitute for other sources of information.As with other sources of palaeodietary information, isotope measurementsare subject to a number of significant uncertainties and potentialbiases, which require further experimental investigation, and theirinterpretation is further constrained by the small sample of humanskeletons so far analysed. We agree that the available isotope record indicates a consistenttendency towards a more dominant terrestrial signal in the diets ofNeolithic individuals compared to their Mesolithic predecessors.However, we do not believe the evidence can be used to demonstrate achange as extreme or rapid as has been claimed, or to exclude theconsumption of marine or terrestrial foods by Neolithic individuals, letalone whole populations. The inshore in��shore?adv. & adj.1. Close to a shore.2. Toward or coming toward a shore.inshoreAdjectivein or on the water, but close to the shore: waters of Northwest Europe are someof the most productive in the world, with an abundance offish off��ish?adj.Inclined to be distant and reserved; aloof.offish��ly adv.off , seamammals and shellfish. The notion that generations of Neolithic farmersthroughout large areas of coastal Europe deliberately turned their backon this marine cornucopia cornucopia(kôr'nykō`pēə), in Greek mythology, magnificent horn that filled itself with whatever meat or drink its owner requested. as part of some widespread new system of ideasand taboos would be remarkable, especially given the clear evidence ofNeolithic seafaring and maritime contacts. Such a notion is not, in ourview, supported by the isotope data, ignores a large amount of existingarchaeological information, and is theoretically implausible. AsLaderman (1981) has demonstrated in her analysis of Malay systems offood classification, these are inherently cultural and symbolicconstructs, but they also operate on many different levels and tend tobe reinforced by practical needs and experiences. Food prohibitions onfish apply to species of little significance as food, which are alsopotentially harmful, difficult to catch or of unusual appearance andcolouring. Even in these cases, the taboo is not rigorously enforced(see also Moss 1993). Those fish species that are the most abundant, themost commonly available, the easiest to catch and the most important fordaily subsistence are never proscribed PROSCRIBED, civil law. Among the Romans, a man was said to be proscribed when a reward was offered for his head; but the term was more usually applied to those who were sentenced to some punishment which carried with it the consequences of civil death. Code, 9; 49. . More isotope measurements from larger samples of human skeletonswould undoubtedly help, but human bone remains are not available inunlimited supply, and increasing the sample size will not resolve theinherent uncertainties in the technique. We also need more rigorousanalyses of local isotope ecology and palaeoeconomic potential to placethe isotope results in context. Above all, we should remember that the traditional sources ofpalaeodietary information give us a generalised picture of subsistencewithin the catchment of an archaeological deposit. Isotope measurements,in contrast, tell us about the recent dietary history dietary history,n See analysis, dietary. of specificindividuals, whose personal 'food catchments' may have beenvery extensive or highly localised, and in all probability a very smalland potentially biased subset of the general food economy. Isotope datareflect high resolution 'events', which are necessarily veryrare compared to the general dietary behaviour of wider populations overlarge areas and long periods. The food remains from archaeologicaldeposits are relatively low-resolution palimpsests, which rarely if evertell us about the detail of individuals or individual groups, butprobably have wider applicability than the dietary signals in individualhuman skeletons. In short, these two techniques measure palaeodiet attwo such different scales of observation and resolution that to bringthem into a coherent relationship according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. a common scale of valuesis very difficult. Using one technique as a crosscheck on the other maybe misleading. In the decades since Eric Higgs Eric Sidney Higgs (1908–1976) was an English archaeologist. Eric Higgs (philosopher) is a Canadian philosopher and ecological planner. poured cold water on claims ofinterdisciplinary research in archaeology as 'A horrid porridge ...of disciplines, each one uncritically accepting or ignoring the work ofothers' (Higgs 1968: 620), much of course has changed, but theconcept of interdisciplinarity has lost none of its popularity. Therisks of circular argument that can arise in such an intellectualenvironment have been well charted in the history of studies on plantand animal domestication domesticationProcess of hereditary reorganization of wild animals and plants into forms more accommodating to the interests of people. In its strictest sense, it refers to the initial stage of human mastery of wild animals and plants. . Zoologists drafted in to find the origin ofdomestication duly devised criteria that found it in the appropriatetimes and places because that is where they had been told to look by thearchaeologists. The archaeologists in their turn duly quoted thezoologists' results as support for a pre-existing belief about theorigins of agriculture, until a new generation of arcbaeozoologistsappeared who were capable of critically evaluating both sides of theargument. The present application of stable isotope studies is at riskof repeating that history, with scientists tempted to exaggerate thepower of their techniques to attract the attention of the archaeologicalcommunity, and archaeologists unfamiliar with the science tempted tomisuse its results in archaeological interpretation. As long as wecontinue to believe that the Neolithic Revolution was the definingmoment in the origin of European civilisation, we will be tempted tofind evidence in support of a Mesolithic-Neolithic transition that isshort and sharp and that emphasises the differences on either side ofthe boundary. Critically examining the nature of that boundary should bepart of the intellectual context in which the next generation of isotopeanalyses and palaeodietary interpretations are conducted. Acknowledgements The research for this paper was carried out as part of an AHRB AHRB Arts and Humanities Research Board grant (B/RG/AN1717/APN14658) to GB and NM. GB also acknowledges fundingfrom the Leverhulme Trust The Leverhulme Trust is a research and educational charity based in London, England.Founded in 1925 after the death of the Victorian entrepreneur William Hesketh Lever to continue his philanthropic work, the Trust was originally endowed with a shareholding in Lever as part of grant F/00125/C under theTrust's Major Research Fellowship Scheme. We are grateful toMatthew Collins For other people named Matthew Collins, see Matthew Collins (disambiguation). 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